law of effectiveness,
349
sweep angle
on stall characteristics,
318
Pitching moment
airfoil at angles-of-attack,
256
airfoil’s pitching moments,
121–122
impact of ground effect on,
352f
Mach number effect on,
280f
modeling for simple wing-HT system,
466
NACA series airfoils,
268f
short-bubble leading edge stall,
252
stall effect types on,
123f
swept-back and straight wing configurations,
498f
Pitching moment coefficient
impact on longitudinal trim,
289
NACA five-digit airfoils,
261
three-dimensional objects,
239
differential ailerons,
952
polynomial representations,
726t
Planar
elliptic planar wing,
450
motion equations for airplane,
823
Glaser-Dirks DG-1000 sailplane features,
453f
using potential flow theory,
453
straight-wing design,
453
Post-development program phase,
11
Potential energy (PE),
184t
Power
airspeed effect on engine,
192
GA and experimental aircraft,
191t
noticeable power effects,
89–90
number of blades effect on,
615–618
optimum design points,
58
plant expert,
power-related coefficients,
614–615
propulsive or thrust,
595
for same-displacement engine,
190
temperature effect on Engine,
195
three halves power law,
524
Prandtl’s lifting line theory,
379–380
Helmholz’s vortex theorems,
381
development program phase,
11
hypothetical conceptual design,
20f
selection of tire sizes,
555
Pressure
dynamic
stalling speed expression,
66
tires and tire inflation,
549
Pressure altitude,
hydrostatic equilibrium equations,
764
pressure or density ratios,
765
Pressure coefficient,
241
Pressure distribution
conventional lift distribution,
242–243
using pressure coefficient,
242
stratford distribution,
243
difference in chordwise,
677f
Pressure drag
drag of subsonic aircraft,
666
in airplane piston engine cowling inlets,
217
airspeed effect on engine power,
192
at front face of compressor,
91
scoop-type inlets for,
213
Pressure-tube
Pressurization
for an aircraft,
Pressurized fuselage,
97–98
Product of inertia
parallel-axis theorem,
167
system of discrete point loads,
168
Project cost
project plan and task management,
21
quality function deployment,
21–27
Proof-of-concept aircraft,
11
blade element theory,
640
compressibility corrections,
654–655
Prandtl’s tip and hub loss corrections,
655–656
blade-element theory,
583
cost of power plant,
41–43
constant-speed propellers, cubic spline method for,
628–630
converting piston BHP to thrust,
620–621
estimating thrust from manufacturer’s data,
631–632
fixed-pitch propellers, cubic spline method for,
623–624
propeller thrust at low airspeeds,
621–630
quadratic interpolation method,
621
fixed
vs. constant-speed propellers,
594–595
constant-pitch propeller,
590
pitch angle or geometric pitch,
590
propeller rotation relationships,
591
angular momentum and gyroscopic effects,
596–597
asymmetric yaw effect,
599
constant-speed propeller,
595f
effects of high tip speed,
605
propeller normal and side force,
598–599
properties and selection,
607
effect of number of blades on power,
615–618
moment of inertia of the propeller,
619–620
power-and thrust-related coefficients,
614–615
propeller efficiency estimation,
610–611
propeller pitch estimation,
610
tips for selecting suitable propeller,
607–608
propulsive or thrust power,
595
Rankine-Froude momentum theory
flow properties inside control volume,
634f
idealized flow model for,
633f
propeller-induced velocity,
632–633
single piston-engine propeller airplane,
64b
tractor configuration,
89
Tupolev Tu-114 passenger aircraft,
583f
Propeller asymmetric thrust effect
airplane operating with,
476
forces, angles and velocity for,
642f
rotating at static conditions,
592f
section lift coefficients for,
604f
Propeller diameter
Propeller disc
fixed-pitch climb propeller,
594
graph for fixed-pitch propeller,
632f
Propeller hub effect,
210,
587
Propeller induced airspeed,
638
Propeller normal force effect,
598
Propeller number of blades
Propeller propulsive efficiency
propeller efficiency,
618
Propeller side force effect,
598–599
constant-speed propellers, cubic spline method for,
628–630
converting piston BHP to thrust,
620–621
estimating thrust from manufacturer’s data,
631–632
fixed-pitch propellers, cubic spline method for,
623–624
propeller thrust at low airspeeds,
621–630
quadratic interpolation method,
621
tractor propeller configuration,
91
Propeller tip effect,
583
Propeller tip speed,
612b
Propwash
blocked and unblocked,
603f
tractor configuration,
89
Pure electric aircraft,
206
Q
Quality control
flight test operations,
45
Quantity discount factor (QDF),
36
depends on experience effectiveness,
36–37,
36f
experience effectiveness adjustment factor,
36
R
Boeing 777 commercial transport aircraft,
447f
positive and negative sweep rakes,
446
comparison to best glide speed,
877
requirement for maximum range,
875–876
Breguet endurance equation,
898
Breguet range equation,
897
determining fuel required for mission,
907–908
inflation pressures for aircraft,
557t
physical and mathematical interpretation,
899t
aspect ratio sensitivity,
909
empty weight sensitivity,
909
specific range
CAFE foundation challenge,
910
Cirrus SR22 general aviation aircraft,
911f
range and endurance,
subsonic minimum drag coefficients,
752
Range Profile 1
constant airspeed/attitude cruise,
907
constant airspeed/constant attitude cruise,
899–900
Range Profile 3
constant airspeed/attitude cruise,
908
constant airspeed/constant attitude cruise,
902
aspect ratio sensitivity,
909
empty weight sensitivity,
909
payload-range sensitivity study,
919–921
Rankine-Froude momentum theory,
632
computer code
ideal and viscous profile,
638
propeller efficiency,
638
idealized flow model for,
633f
propeller-induced velocity,
632–633
Rapid pattern recognition,
performance handbooks,
749
for propeller-powered airplane,
834
Rate-of-descent
aircraft reduces altitude,
927
derivation of equation,
927
Reference altitude
atmospheric conditions,
765
temperature constants,
764t
for Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker,
302f
Reference temperature,
764t
Regulations,
aircraft classes certification,
3t
center of gravity envelope,
168
GA aircraft,
safety in commercial aviation,
6–7
airworthiness directives,
14
CAR, CAA, FAA and EASA,
13
maintenance requirements,
14
parts manufacturer approval,
15
special airworthiness certificate,
14
standard airworthiness certificate,
14
supplemental type certificate,
14
technical standard order,
15
Requirements for static stability,
464
Resin
composites,
Responsiveness
aileron design requirements,
952
control surface sizing,
948
Retractable
approach requirement,
968
Retractable landing gear
aluminum Mooney Ovation,
119
approach requirement,
968
fads in aircraft design,
79t
retraction and extension,
554
aerodynamic properties,
406
change in skin friction coefficient with,
678f
form factors at subcritical,
702
form factors at supercritical,
703
using Owen’s criterion,
252
turbulent boundary layer,
248
Ribs
Rivet
aileron authority derivative,
953
aileron design requirements,
952
differential ailerons,
952
spoiler-flap ailerons,
951
Roll stability at stall
forward-swept planform,
337
Rolling
approach requirement,
968
Rolling moment coefficient,
953
roll damping coefficient,
956
straight tapered wing planform,
334
mass moment of inertia,
165
propeller relationships,
591
single-slotted fowler flap,
430–431
inverted V-tail configuration,
493
take-off rotation capability,
495
airplanes feature plain flaps for,
418
stability and control theory,
460
vertical ventral fin,
493
Rudder authority
low directional stability,
964
clockwise propeller rotation,
599–600
Rudder pedal
control system interaction,
492–493
side-slip airplane on,
491
canard configuration,
496
S
Sailplane
dihedral configurations,
87
empirical formulation,
315
high-aspect-ratio wings,
349
monowheel with outriggers,
92
Sailplane operation
maximum lift-to-drag ratio,
316f
Sailplanes regulations
culver twist formula,
324
using quadratic spline method,
741
Seaplane
noticeable power effects,
89–90
Section lift coefficient,
239
angle-of-attack at zero lift,
240
comparison of fractional,
332f
compound tapered wing planform,
335
lift coefficient of minimum drag,
241
maximum and minimum lift coefficients,
239
minimum drag coefficient,
241
for propeller blade,
604f
vortex-lattice model,
967f
Section lift coefficient distribution
with and without endplates,
449f
elliptical planform,
333f
geometry and lifting characteristics,
341f
cause roll instability,
437
for full span flaps,
438f
for partial span flaps,
437f
taper ratio effect on,
316f
Semi-tapered planform,
339
Sensitivity
calibrated airspeeds,
840
propeller efficiency,
841
landing distance sensitivity studies,
942
payload-range sensitivity study,
919–921
performance,
propeller efficiency,
842
range sensitivity studies,
908
aspect ratio sensitivity,
909
empty weight sensitivity,
909
take-off sensitivity studies,
816–817
Separated boundary layer,
665
Service bulletin (SB),
15
Shaft horsepower (SHP),
185
for tractor configuration,
599f
Simple Krüger flap leading edge,
409
aerodynamic properties,
411
folding, bull-nose Krüger flap,
411
aerodynamic properties,
426
general design guidelines,
426
leading edge devices,
425
special lift-enhancing tab,
980
trailing-edge high-lift devices,
425–426
Skin
coefficients calculation,
707f
force for complete wing,
683
Frankl-Voishel correction for,
280–281
miscellaneous or additive drag,
698–700
separation and flat roof,
243
using surface wetted area,
681
Skin friction drag coefficient,
675
boundary layer stability,
676
by fluid’s viscosity,
675
laminar boundary layer,
676
natural laminar flow airfoil,
675
standard formulation to estimate,
678–679
streamlined three-dimensional shape,
676
Slot-lip
cruise and climb performance,
952
NACA TN-5475 and NACA R-6026,
951
Slotted flap
articulating-vane double-slotted flap,
428,
429f
fixed-vane double-slotted flap,
428,
428f
general design guidelines,
430
main/aft double-slotted flap,
428,
429f
polynomial representations,
726t
reference geometry schematics,
434f
aerodynamic properties,
426
general design guidelines,
426
trailing-edge high-lift devices,
425–426
Smeaton lift equation,
239
Solid modeling
standard three-view drawing,
29f
Spar
carry-through for small GA aircraft,
30f
cross sections for GA aircraft,
121f
spar-rib-stringers-skin,
301
Spar cap
main spar cross sections,
121
Special airworthiness certificate (SAC),
14
Special Airworthiness Type Certificate,
14
Specific fuel consumption (SFC),
188
aspirated piston engines for aircraft,
192t
conventional piston and jet engines,
188
CAFE foundation challenge,
910
Cirrus SR22 general aviation aircraft,
911f
range and endurance,
Spin recovery
OEI asymmetric thrust,
964
potential solution to,
483f
stability and control analysis,
461
T-tail aircraft post-stall at,
487f
high-pressure region on,
420
polynomial representations,
726t
SR22
banking constraint diagram,
886f
composite sandwich construction,
119
drag polar and lift-to-drag ratio estimations,
906f
flat plate skin friction,
683
T-O performance of selected aircraft,
944t–945t
Stability and Control
airfoils pitching moment,
244
dorsal fin and rudder locking,
973
handling requirements,
951
Cmα historical values,
468
pitching moment modeling,
466
requirements for lateral stability,
477
requirements for static directional stability,
476–477
static directional and lateral stability,
475–476
static longitudinal stability,
463–466
stick-fixed and stick-free neutral points,
472–473
tail design and spin recovery,
482–483
tail sizing worksheet,
16
ventral fin
long-bubble leading edge,
252
margin for horizontal tail,
967
progression on selected wing planforms,
371f
short-bubble leading edge,
252
Stall, trailing edge,
251
aerodynamic washout on,
322f
flow separation effect,
283f
Stall characteristics
impact on flow separation,
289
impact of sweep angle,
257
deviation from generic stall patterns,
369
influence of manufacturing tolerances,
378–379
pitch-up stall boundary for,
375–378
tailoring stall progression,
369–374
Stall handling
aerodynamic effectiveness,
442
impact on maximum lift and,
289
Stall progression
deviation from generic stall patterns,
369
dissimilar predictions,
972f
on selected wing planforms,
370f
on straight tapered wing planforms,
372f
tailoring
stall characteristics,
369
wings with multiple airfoils,
371–373
Stall speed
constraint diagram with,
66f
cruise speed carpet plot,
67–69
limits into constraint diagram,
65–66
Stall strips
Stalling airspeed
level stalling speed with load factor,
62
stalling speed during banking,
62
with thrust, flap and
CG effects,
63
Standard airworthiness certificate (AC),
14
Standard Airworthiness Type Certificate,
14
Statistical weight analysis,
142
statistical aircraft component methods
air conditioning and anti-icing,
144
avionics systems weight,
144
flight control-system weight,
144
hydraulic system weight,
144
installed engine weight,
144
main landing gear weight,
143
nose landing gear weight,
143
statistical methods to engine weight estimation,
145
weight of piston engines,
145
weight of turbofan engines,
146
weight of turboprop engines,
146
Steel
Step
cruise speed carpet plot
aerodynamic properties calculation,
67
carpet plot creation,
68–69
preparation for plotting,
68
tabulate maximum airspeeds,
67–68
tabulate stall speeds,
67
fuselage external shape initial design,
526–529
geometric layout
tricycle landing gear layout,
567–569
maneuvering loads and design airspeeds,
775–778
NACA four-digit airfoils
airfoil ordinates computation,
258–259
ordinate rotation angle calculation,
260
prepare ordinate table,
259
slope of mean-line calculation,
259–260
thickness calculation,
259
upper and lower ordinates calculation,
260
y-value for mean-line,
259
propeller efficiency table,
630–631
quality function deployment
customer requirements,
22–24
interrelationship matrix,
26
technical requirements,
24
skin friction drag coefficient calculation,
680–686
weight of wing shear web,
150t
weight of wing spar caps,
151t
Stick-fixed neutral point,
170
conventional aircraft,
472
impact of horizontal tail volume,
502f
Stick-free neutral point,
472
conventional aircraft,
472
Storage
energy on board an aircraft,
206
wing available for fuel,
308
Stressed-skin construction,
117,
119
horizontal vertical tail structure layout,
126–128
Strut-braced wing
cantilever configuration,
88
maximum shear and bending loads,
87–88
Supercritical airfoil,
274
Supplemental type certificate (STC),
14
Supplemental Type Certificate,
14
Surface area
Swept
empirical estimation, ,
41–43
for high-speed aircraft,
317
aircraft inspection with,
123
T
T-O rotation
inverted V-tail configuration,
493
T-O weight
mission airplane design,
135
Rolladen-Schneider LS4 sailplane boasts,
525f
transition and total fuselage drag,
525f
Tail
effect of changes in,
71–72
directional moment,
69–71
A-tail configuration,
495f
aft podded engine configuration,
486
H-tail configuration,
494f
inverted V-tail configuration,
493f
rudder during spin on,
483f
U-Tail configuration,
496
Y-tail configuration,
493f
Tail wheel
Taildragger
castering-wheel configurations,
553f
Tailless aircraft
culver twist formula,
324
Panknin and Culver formulas,
325f
range of subsonic minimum drag coefficients,
752t
aircraft with swept wings,
337
steep runway slope impact,
817
Tandem
monowheel with outriggers,
92
Tandem wheel
original and reduced wing,
394t
semi-tapered planform,
339
geometry and lifting characteristics,
334f
Technical Standard, Authorization Order,
15
Technical standard order (TSO),
15
Technical Standard Order,
15
Technical standard order authorization (TSOA),
15
Temperature
in adiabatic compression,
217
Thermal
Thermodynamics
3-dimensional lift coefficient,
237
Three position leading edge slat,
415,
415f
Three-surface configuration,
495,
495f
Throttle ratio
High compressor pressure ratio,
197
prediction of engine thrust,
198
efficiency model for,
812f
for jet-powered aircraft,
804
maximum
optimum design points,
58
using simplified drag model,
874f
thrust-to-weight ratio,
185
on stability and control,
224
propeller and gas turbines,
185
theoretical representation,
184f
thrust-to-weight ratio,
185
Thrust specific fuel consumption,
197
Thrustline
effect of high or low,
90f
straight tapered wing planform,
334
Tire
Tire inflation pressure,
549
man-hours number,
power-torque relation,
44–46
Touch-down
pilot to flare aircraft,
966
Tractor propeller
Trailing link landing gear,
564
from laminar to turbulent flow,
676f
laminar-to-turbulent,
679
pressure distribution,
242
Transition ramp
Trapezoidal planform,
303
trapezoidal wing planform,
304f
Tricycle
landing gear reaction loads,
571–572
taildragger configuration,
92
Triplane
drag characteristics,
753t
for commercial jetliners,
430
heavy mechanical system,
429
using simplified drag mode,
872f
streamlined tension wire,
719
altitude and airspeed effect,
201
generic-low-bypass ratio thrust,
202
mounted on pylons,
altitude and airspeed effect,
200
altitude and airspeed effect,
198–199
Turbulent boundary layer,
248
fluid flow inside laminar,
248f
laminar-to-turbulent transition,
679
skin friction coefficient for,
680
Turbulent flow
Turning radius
distance to turning center,
552
geometric definitions for,
552f
Two position leading edge slat,
412
geometric parameters,
413f
Two position propeller,
586
Type Three-part tire,
977
U
U-tail
propeller configurations,
496
twin tail-boom configuration,
496
US standard atmosphere 1976, ,
8t
arbitrary chord line angle,
305
V
V-tail
difference in yaw response,
492f
Variable camber Krüger flap leading edge,
411
Variable camber leading edge,
406–407
pitching moment curve,
482f
stability and control,
973
aircraft components,
80–81
larger airplanes feature,
126
spar of light aircraft,
126
Viscous profile efficiency,
618
fixed-pitch propellers,
639
Volume
mid-wing configuration,
85
structural standpoint,
130
Vortex
generators on aft fuselage,
692f
constant-strength straight,
381f
Helmholz’s vortex theorems,
381
installation and wind tunnel testing,
980
on lower HT surface,
980f
W
Washout
on probable stall progression,
373f
acceptable for test vehicle,
174
aircraft into categories,
174
Weight ratio
Wheel
castering-wheel configurations,
553f
modern and aluminum wheels,
558–559
Wing aspect ratio
impact of aspect ratio on,
310t
lift-induced drag magnitude,
309
transfer wing torsion,
122
Wing planform
aerospace engineer’s formula sheet,
997
constant-chord sweptback,
337f
stall progression on,
372f
for generic airplane,
329
ideal, actual and wasted lift distributions,
329f
Cuffs for composite aircraft,
978
turbulent boundary layer,
691
physical and angular stations relationship,
391f
roll damping derivative,
955
scaling top view based on,
682f
general rule-of-thumb,
317
passenger-carrying aircraft,
317
spanwise distribution,
316f
interference factors,
700t
lift-induced drag to distribution,
450
skin friction and interference drag,
449–450
Whitcomb winglet
flight test evaluation,
451
on McDonnell-Douglas,
451f
aerodynamic effectiveness,
442
lifting characteristics,
340
parasite areas and coefficients,
699t
IPTs,
X
Y
aerodynamic properties,
310t
stability and control theory,
460
Z
on full-scale aircraft,
422
Zero lift angle-of-attack
design lift coefficient,
343
midpoint cruise value,
326