Motivation Defined

When application drives adults' needs to learn, their motivation becomes a powerful impetus. Now in its third edition, Wlodkowski's (2011) work on motivation of adults in learning provides a starting point as the discussion expands to leveraging this knowledge for daily and professional success in the digital age.

Motivation is evidenced in the actions of adult learners. Wlodkowski (2011) indicated that these include perseverance, completion, and effort. He also described how learners articulate their motivation through an array of words that educators should become accustomed to recognizing: “I want to … I will … You watch … I'll give it my best!” (p. 2).

The term motivation has a wide breadth of meaning because it is so multifaceted. Overall, it may be defined as the effort and energy one invests in pursuing a purpose or goal (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). However, as described, sometimes we can see evidence of motivation; other times it may not be obvious from our vantage point. In the same vein, learners may use words that indicate motivation and to express genuine intention or they could be used as a façade. In order to determine the motivation of another person (e.g., an adult learner), educators need to consider (triangulate) these different sources of data.

There have been many theories that document how and why motivation occurs. The topic is most often introduced in the field of psychology; however, it relies on other contexts, such as economics (Smith, 1776/2008); scientific management (Taylor, 1919); behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner, etc.); hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954); and cognition (Vroom, 1964).

However, educators most often see discussions of how to cultivate or leverage motivation. Ginsberg and Wlodkowski's (2009) work includes addressing the particular issue of building intrinsic motivation. Their work recommends optimal learning and facilitation conditions that establish inclusion, develop a positive attitude, enhance meaning, and cultivate competence. In addition, such motivation-building efforts can merge into the patterns of engagement, application, and critical thinking.

The next sections discuss general motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and describe means to use these motivations to advance learning. In addition, several examples demonstrate how technology can be a powerful aid in developing and supporting motivation in the digital age.

Motivation Needed

There are a plethora of different settings and opportunities in which adult learners use or would benefit from tapping into motivation for learning. And if they do not, the learning takes longer, may not be accurate, or is regulated by government and professional requests (accreditation).

Adult learners may lack motivation to learn when they have no choice in learning, in other words, when learning is required or mandated. Such situations arise frequently in this age of rapid technology and societal change.

Adults may not be motivated to learn when they must or are required to learn because of the following:

• New procedures and processes because of technology changes (e.g., upgraded or different software programs, etc.)
• Changes in technology implementation (e.g., new phone systems, a different human resources [HR] online platform, etc.)
• Required use of online systems to pay fines or taxes (e.g., traffic tickets, violations, income tax, etc.)
• Store discounts solely available in online or mobile device formats (e.g., membership discounts, customer-only discounts, location-based coupons, etc.)
• Home maintenance and food preparation devices replaced by digital forms (e.g., digital interfaces on washing machines, clothes washers, coffee makers, kitchen ranges, etc.)

The reason these circumstances do not necessarily motivate learners is that they did not have a choice to adopt technology and pursue the training period. Instead of making their own choices and deciding when, if ever, they wanted to transition to a new format or interface, corporations, organizations, government agencies, and schools might make the decisions for them. In these cases, the mandate can become an instant barrier to learning. These organizational leaders could have managed the circumstances differently and created a positive motivation for learning. Instead, many leaders still erroneously decide (or are ill-advised) that it is easier, quicker, and more cost effective to mandate short-term training for all employees.

In cases of personal devices, software, or other technology, the situation is similar. Many times individual device users do not decide the timing of software upgrades or changes. In the case of cell phones, the provider or technology company can directly push upgrades to a cell phone. Cell phone change is also mandated when telecommunications software upgrades render older cell phones obsolete and nonfunctional. When the provider decides to end support for a software version or device, users must change to new cell phone models if they want a working phone on that system.

In other cases, if one wants to use a specific software program, a user might be required to buy or download free or costly upgrades to unlock it. Many accounting, personal finance, and income tax software packages use this approach. Usually people complete taxes or other projects as the deadline approaches quickly. Although just-in-time learning (learning available near or at the point of use) can be a powerful instructional delivery system and strategy, the pressure of the circumstances can be frustrating and demotivating. (An example of such frustration is when one must learn new software, access help files, and troubleshoot printer problems with a looming deadline.) These methods can foster tremendous resentment and be a poor motivator for good learning.

Extrinsic Motivation

Shopping venues, marketing, and sales rely on the power of extrinsic rewards when they offer instant rebates, sweepstakes entries with purchases, buy one–get one free sales, and scores of promises to improve our appearance, intelligence, popularity, and quality of life. Extrinsic motivation originates from outside the individual, rather than inside. However, the extrinsic motivation that these strategies cultivate does not necessarily render the strongest commitment.

Case in point, when a different grocery store offers a better sale in a given week, many people will choose to abandon their loyalty to their accustomed shopping venue. This belief in extrinsic rewards can be seen in the money invested by sellers for scores of e-mail or text ads delivered to your in-box every day, the pop-up and predictive Internet advertisements that interrupt your browsing and social media efforts, and the thick volume of colored newsprint ads delivered weekly with traditional newspapers. Instead of only the Sunday paper ads, many users receive such advertisements constantly. However, what is our response to the onslaught of these efforts to engage us in purchasing products and services? Most will end up being ignored, because they are not considered intrinsically valuable to us and we only have a finite amount of time available.

In the digital age, savvy technology users might determine which shopping applications can be used on their devices to sift through the thousands of coupons, discounts, and special promotions being offered by their favorite and occasional merchants. Even with this technology assistance, intrinsic motivation continues to be a dominant deciding factor when many people choose where and what to purchase.

Intrinsic Motivation

In comparison, there are many settings and situations in which intrinsic motivation drives adults toward resources and learning because they have a personal interest in the outcome or reward. In these cases, people pursue learning because of urgent needs in the absence of explicit rewards. The following list describes several situations that can serve as effective learning motivators for adults:

• Being confronted with critical health issues for themselves or their family, 72% seek information and support from online sources (Pew Research Internet Project, 2014)
• Required to use online systems to apply for employment, HR benefits, insurance, and so on
• Received online entertainment requests from family and friends (e.g., Skype invitations, VOIP cell phone deals, etc.)
• Faced with urgent home repairs that need service (e.g., Google, HomeAdvisor.com, Angie's List, etc.)
• Relocated and are trying to determine which are the best restaurants, childcare services, doctors, hospitals, and so on (e.g., Yelp, HomeAdvisor.com, Angie's List, etc.)

Such situations have the interest of the individual at the center. Whether they are health, entertainment, communication, home repair, or other issues, learning provides an immediate, essential avenue for information and resources.

The opening scenario referred to a case that illustrated intrinsic rewards. When Lorenzo had knee surgery, he independently sought information and support through technology. Lorenzo was greatly motivated to learn the location of bona fide resources.

The ubiquity of this motivation and related actions are so well established that entire industries have developed to benefit from and support them. Online platforms such as Yelp! and Zomato (formerly Urbanspoon) provide searchable databases of restaurant ratings and reviews by name or location. Yelp! users freely contribute the information in order to increase the site's value and usefulness and have their opinions published and recognized. In the travel industry, Travelocity and Expedia are among the many popular web services that provide the same type of learning experience.

Stedman, Schoenfeld, and O'Donnell (2013) researched the achievement of learning objectives in a medical internship. In this case, internship supervisors were provided with required learning objectives for their work with the medical intern. Results indicate that there was much confusion related to learning objectives that were mandated without explanation or clarity. Based on organizational dynamics literature, many employees are mandated to engage in activities including training programs (Birnbaum, 1991; Birnbaum & Edelson, 1989). Yet, adult learners do not necessarily respond well to authoritarian demands. In these cases, it becomes evident that the learners and instructors need to understand what objectives they need to accomplish.

To illustrate different sets of motivation situations that drive technology, consider this question: How many ways, and for what purposes, do you use Skype or a similar videoconferencing platform? Most people don't realize how often such videoconferencing is incorporated in the young adult and adult world of work, higher education, and personal communication.

Many adults consider web conferencing to be one of their standard communications tools. When listing their contact information, they could include not only a telephone and texting number, one or more e-mail accounts (private and work related), but also usernames for Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and also Skype. In many situations, savvy technology users choose to use web conferencing instead of phone calls because of its benefits: a live video platform and more reliable connection. As far as convenience, people use web conferencing from many devices including laptops, tablets, or smartphones.

Given this context and expectation of access, people who have not adopted videoconferencing will be compelled to learn. However, sometimes learning Skype or another conference platform is the only way to visit with your grandchildren or children who live in a foreign country or participate in a virtual interview for a desired job. In these situations, adults will be highly motivated to learn. In these cases, there is no grade, bonus, or sweepstake entries but people choose to respond to the benefits offered for themselves.

Leveraging Intrinsic Motivation with Technology Toolkit (LIMT Toolkit)

The next section provides the LIMT Toolkit of strategies and activities for leveraging intrinsic motivation among adult learners. By building on the prior discussion of the formidable influence of extrinsic motivations and weaker motivation offered by mandates and requirements, this section illustrates how to build more effective learning strategies.

These strategies and activities demonstrate how current technology may be used to facilitate greater motivation for learning. As a specific context, these prototypes use health and wellness because research findings demonstrate that these areas greatly motivate adults to learn (Pew Research Internet Project, 2014).

LIMT Toolkit Strategy 6.1: Adult Basic Education (ABE)

Mathematics is a fundamental learning area for ABE students and often a source of little motivation and high frustration. However, finding ways to teach mathematics within the context of critical daily needs can make the experience relevant, meaningful, and motivating.

Sparkpeople.com is a free online community and platform focused on helping users improve their health and wellness (see Figure 6.1). Its founder, designers, and moderators use a multitude of strategies and tools to educate and support members in their quest for greater wellness. A few examples of the learning support areas include healthy eating, attitudes, exercise, stress reduction, community, and so on.

Users have options to not only track or input their exercise activity but also to track their food consumption. As users enter their data, the online databases catalog the results and immediately conduct calculations to demonstrate progress in reaching users' dietary, health, and fitness goals.

For instance, in the case of exercise, Sparkpeople customers might use an inexpensive digital, analog, or wireless pedometer or smartphone application to track their walking distance every day for 2 weeks. They next access the Sparkpeople.com website, create a free account, log in, and set their daily, weekly, and monthly goals. The next day, they log in and input the previous day's walking data.

At this point, the system has been tracking progress toward their personal objective(s). As the activity continues for the 2 weeks, whenever users access the system, they are notified of their achievements in distance walked (miles or kilometers), progress percentage, and remaining percent and distanced needed to reach the goal.

Returning to our main focus for Strategy 6.1, these Sparkpeople.com experiences can be leveraged to provide a real-life context and greater meaning for adults learning arithmetic, percentages, and mathematical operations. Compared to more traditional math-related word problems or work sheets, such real-life (or authentic) contexts provide much greater motivation for learning (Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2014; Louis, 2013).

Beyond arithmetic, the Sparkpeople reporting system can also be used as a vehicle for cultivating visual literacy skills. Many of the platform's tracking tools display intermediate achievement and remaining effort in chart and graph formats. Another learning opportunity infused with intrinsic motivation may be to observe such health and fitness data over time. Then small groups of learners may present and discuss the relationships among the data sets using visual displays (including tables, charts, graphs, etc.).

LIMT Toolkit Strategy 6.2: Human Biology or Nursing Education

Turning to a postsecondary application of these principles, Care4Life.com is a website and smartphone application that supports recording blood glucose levels, health record information, and diabetes-related activities (see Figure 6.2). As a health education tool, Care4Life.com provides a reliable, interactive record of information that aids users in monitoring their health conditions and discussing their needs with their physician(s).

By simulating self-care of a person with diabetes, a biology professor could use Care4life to assist students in documenting and analyzing the fluctuations of their blood glucose levels. Rather than solely reading about such changes in a textbook, the students would experience how their own body's blood sugar rises and falls during several cycles throughout the day and night. This firsthand experience naturally provides the basis for learners to ask additional questions that effectively extend the learning opportunity to their specific life concerns.

Although this project might only be assigned for 5 to 7 days, it could have a profound effect on learners' comprehension of the fundamental physiological and dietary principles. Seeing the impact of one's own diet and exercise on blood sugar is a dramatic experience for understanding health and wellness.

As a specific example, in nurse and medical assistant education, the Care4Life application could also provide firsthand opportunities to engage in tools used for public health support. Instead of hypothesizing about the challenges facing patients with guiding someone through a personal health maintenance concern and medication compliance, nursing students would gain hands-on experience, building greater understanding of diabetic glucose tracking.

At the beginning, learners could use role-playing to practice introducing each other to Care4Life.com. Journaling or group discussions could provide opportunities to explore how to improve their efforts. Another learning extension could be to have students investigate and present rationales for alternate mobile technology tools that would support future patients in tracking health conditions, medications, and treatment appointments.

When people know that time and effort invested in learning will directly benefit their life, intrinsic motivation increases greatly. The following LIMT Toolkit activities will guide learners and educators through examining how to incorporate intrinsic motivation as one designs or revises strategies for crafting engaging learning opportunities.

Conclusion

This chapter has discussed how extrinsic and intrinsic motivation play critical roles in adult learning. In the same vein, the multitude of possibilities that technology, online resources, and communities offer for motivating learning among adults was discussed and illustrated. In addition to several examples of resources and learning activities that support motivating or urgent adult learning, the chapter also presented strategies for educators to design many more activities based on their specific areas of interest and expertise. How will you leverage the power of motivation in pursuing your next learning venture?