8
Directing

Part 1

The Role of the Director

Earlier, we learned that television is a producer’s medium. Many observers of the television production process believe that the television director plays a role secondary to that of the producer. Most of us are familiar with the fame and glamor that are associated with film directors, and you can probably name the directors of your favorite movies. On the other hand, rarely are we able to recall the name of the director of our favorite television show. It is more likely that the producer’s name shines in the credits.

So the big question arises: “What is the role of the director in the creative process of television production?” The answer to this question varies depending on the type of television program a director is in charge of. But in general for a director to be successful, two traits are essential: creative leadership and creative problem-solving skills. As Jack Shea, former President of the Director’s Guild of America (DGA), said, “A director wears many hats—counselor, cheerleader, artist, craftsman, storyteller, technician—but above all a director is a leader.”¹ (See Figure 8.1.)

This chapter will examine the director’s role and responsibilities during the complete production process, including preproduction, production, and postproduction for multicamera and single-camera programs. However, before we go on to explain the television director’s role, a short discussion of multicamera and single-camera production is in order.

■ Multicamera Production versus Single-Camera Production

Multicamera production is a live or recorded live approach in which the talent’s performance is done in real time and visual continuity is achieved by switching between several cameras placed at different angles and having different views of the action. Shot selection is done in real time. This demands that the director watch several camera monitors at the same time and not only be conscious of which camera is online, but also be prepared to call for the camera that is coming on next. This type of production results in instantaneous editing of the program as it is being produced. News programs, talk and game shows, soap operas, and sports events are all typically produced as multicamera events.

Single-camera production, sometimes called film-style production, uses a repeated-take approach. In single-camera production each shot is staged individually. Shots are generally not shot in the sequence in which they appear in the script. Rather, they are shot out of sequence according to the location where the action takes place. The staged action is repeated as many times as the director considers necessary. Most television episodic drama series are produced by using the single-camera method.

There is also a mixed form of production that is often used in the production of situation comedies (sitcoms). Some sitcoms are shot with multiple video or film cameras, each one recording the scene from its own particular angle. The recorded video or film is then edited in postproduction. As in the single-camera method of production, actions are stopped and repeated as many times as needed. Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz’s 1950s sitcom I Love Lucy was the first program to use this production approach. During the 1960s and 1970s many sitcoms were shot single-camera film-style and later moved to the multicamera approach.

■ Factors that Influence the Director’s Role

In general, the television director is responsible for leading a team of technical personnel and creative collaborators to the successful completion of a television program. The director’s job is to take the script he or she receives from a producer and turn it into the final product: a television program. Even though a producer may have created the original look and feel of a show, it is the director who interprets the producer’s vision by establishing camera shots and angles, controlling the program’s pace and rhythm, and coaching the performers. Although the television director’s role may be influenced by the complexity of the production, there is general agreement that directing is mostly about leadership. Accordingly, a director’s responsibilities fall within the following three areas: creative leadership, production management, and knowledge of production technology.

■ The Director as Creative Leader

One of the most appreciated characteristics of a director is creative leadership. To tell the story at hand, a director must be able to guide the production team through the successful visual interpretation of the script. In doing so, a director needs to apply his or her artistic skills, as well as those of the team, to achieve a variety of aesthetic manipulations that will enhance the overall effectiveness of the show. Artistic principles are the basis of visual thinking. This means that a director will break down a script into shots and scenes and will abide by rules of good framing and composition—head room, lead room, and so on—as well as a good balance between the motion of the performers and camera angles.

The director engages in a process of visual thinking and effective storytelling practices. Most of the time, effective storytelling practices in television abide by certain conventional principles that have evolved within the television field. (Remember, however, that creative rules are sometimes meant to be broken!) Fact-based programs, such as news or talk shows, do not adhere to the same visual principles as are applied in the production of sitcoms, music shows, or sportscasts. They each tell their own story in their own particular way, adjusting to the type of event and, in many cases, to the particular makeup and expectations of their audiences.

Regardless of program genre, a director should always be guided first by intuition (What is it that the director wants to share with the intended audience?) and by the following questions: What is this program all about? What are its objectives? What are the audience’s expectations and needs? Does my audience want to be informed or entertained? The answers to these questions will provide the director with clues about which audiovisual approach will be best to tell the story well.

■ The Director as Production Manager

As managers, directors play a significant role in the proper administration and efficient use of a television program’s production resources, especially the human and technical resources. But a director must also be prepared to find creative solutions to everyday production problems, such as crew illnesses, communication problems between team members, and safety. Above all, the director must pay special attention to crew attitudes and behavior. A director must at times act as a psychologist, counselor, and personal advisor to many members of the crew to ensure the creation of an appropriate working environment.

Excellent time management skills are also imperative. Deadlines are at the heart of television production and programming, and whether or not the deadlines are met can make the difference between the successful completion of a television show (artistically and financially) or its failure.

■ Knowledge of Production Technology

Television production takes place in a highly technology-dependent environment. Technology provides the director with the necessary tools to achieve his or her vision of the program. A director should be acquainted with the available technology to make certain that it will be used properly. In addition, knowing the capabilities of the technology and the skill levels of the crew provides the director with knowledge of the limitations of equipment and crew. This is particularly important in college and university production environments, which rely on student crew members instead of paid professional crews. Remember, the director is not only the liaison between the creative and technical personnel, but also the supervisor for the technical crew. As such the director must be able to speak their language and understand the potential problems that may arise in order to be able to suggest possible solutions.

Responsibilities During the Preproduction Process

Preproduction is often considered to be the most important stage in the whole production process. This is a stage of interpretation, preparation, and planning—lots of preparation and planning! Television production is particularly sensitive to Murphy’s Law: “If something can go wrong, it will.” So the best way to avoid the pitfalls of Murphy’s Law is to do extensive and rigorous planning. The success or failure of the project is most likely to depend on how well preproduction was carried out.

Preproduction provides the director with two important spaces. First, this is an opportunity for the director to get acquainted with the producer’s point of view and expectations for the show. Second, the director’s process of visualization begins during the preproduction stage. The director starts to interpret planning materials such as scripts and storyboards and begins to identify the aesthetic and technical production values that will determine the look and feel of the program.

This is the time to introduce performers and production crew to the director’s particular ways of engaging the tasks of producing a television show in a particular environment. The director begins to establish a rapport with members of the production team, both creative and technical, to facilitate communication between team members. The director needs to be aware of and accommodate the different personalities and skills of talent and crew.

The following are the most common tasks that a director must complete during the preproduction stage. However, please note that not all productions call for the director to engage in all of these activities. The level of involvement of the director will depend on the type of program, the role of producers and writers, the budget, and the organizational structure of the production agency.

■ Script Breakdown

Breaking down the script means dividing it into scenes and shots in a particular order to establish a logical production sequence and to organize production elements, such as locations, performers, times, tasks, equipment, and expenses, so that the production stage can be carried out within the planned schedule. There are many formats for breakdown sheets. Figure 8.2 shows the breakdown of a scene from the script that came from the treatment in Figure 7.4. There are a number of software applications that can help you accomplish the task, such as Final Draft and Cinergy. Before the breakdown of the script (which is often done with the participation of the producer and writers) the director may need to do some rewriting to adjust it to his or her personal style. Breaking down the script will also help the director to solidify the visualization process.

■ Location Scouting (Surveying) for Productions Done in the Field

We will assume that before surveying any location the producer has secured the location by clearing all legal obstacles and acquiring the necessary permits to shoot on that location. One important benefit of a location survey is that it allows the director to experience firsthand the location’s characteristics. In doing so, the director can maximize the audiovisual potential of the site by establishing camera angles and talent positions and can also anticipate potential problems. Lighting and sound conditions and the availability of electrical power on location are some of the most challenging aspects of field production. We cannot emphasize strongly enough the importance of planning and surveying a location to ensure that these elements are properly under the control of the production team. The camera operator, audio operator, and lighting director should accompany the director on the day of the location visit. If possible, to ensure that the conditions on the shooting day are similar to what was observed during the survey, the location survey should be conducted at the same time of day and on the same day of week that shooting is scheduled to take place.

■ Working with the Cast and Crew

The television director may or may not participate in the selection of the cast or crew; either way the director must get acquainted with each member of the production team. The director must be able to coach the program’s performers in such a way that they understand the director’s interpretation and visualization of the script. The director should become familiar with the skill levels of everyone on the technical crew and make sure that everyone understands his or her role and responsibilities. In all, it is the director’s responsibility to create the proper working environment and to foster good interpersonal relationships so that all individuals feel that they are contributing members of the production team.

■ Selecting Facilities and Equipment

Even though it is most likely the job of the producer to ensure the availability of studio facilities and the necessary production equipment, it is often left up to the director to specify the particular type of equipment needed to accomplish the production objectives. But again, this depends on the type of show that is going to be produced. For instance, news and talk shows are done in a studio, and they usually have permanent setups that may have been established years before a director came into the show. In other program formats there are many occasions when a director will make the decision about what type of equipment is to be used, what the final look of the set will be, and what kinds of facilities are needed in order to translate the abstractness of a script into the concreteness of a broadcast or recorded program.

■ Safety and Health

The safety and health of team members must be among the director’s top priorities. Safety procedures must be complied with in every studio and field production, not only because of natural humanitarian concerns, but also because of possible legal implications that may result from violating them. General guidelines for workplace safety have been articulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Many productions, especially episodic dramatic television series, use special effects or engage in activities such as stunts and chases that place actors and crew members at risk of injury. It is the director’s responsibility to ensure a safe working environment for all members of the production team. This may include setting up an educational or training program for cast and crew and establishing mechanisms for reporting accidents or illnesses.

Aesthetics of Production: Continuity, Depth, and Visual Composition

Once preproduction is complete, the program enters the production or shooting phase. Each director, depending on the type and format of the show, will encounter a unique set of problems that can be met and solved with hard work, care, and creativity. Many of these problems may have been anticipated during preproduction. During production the director starts building the show. Just as the architect, blueprints in hand, instructs the construction managers and workers about the steps needed to create a building out of an empty site, the director leads the cast and crew in the difficult task of constructing the television show.

All along we have emphasized the director’s creative leadership. Creativity is closely related to adherence to aesthetic principles that are deeply rooted in the performing and visual arts.

Creativity, along with knowledge of essential aesthetic and technical principles, allows the director to construct the illusion of a real world on a television screen. As we mentioned before, each television format calls for its own particular style of presentation. Formats use conventional audiovisual syntax and semantic structures that have been previously established for them and that audiences recognize, accept, and expect. Regardless of the format or a director’s visual style, there are certain rules and codes that are meant to be followed. Following are descriptions and explanations of three of the most important sets of aesthetic principles that a director must always keep in mind in order to successfully deliver his or her artistic vision: continuity, depth, and visual composition.

■ Continuity

To tell a story successfully, a director arranges a series of elements in such a manner as to present them to an audience in a logical, coherent, and continuous flow. The viewer must be able to read the television screen in a way that makes sense and must also be able to correlate environmental variables in a video scene—such as space, screen direction, or lighting, and precedent shots or scenes—to form a larger structure.

Of course, rules are sometimes meant to be broken, and directors do break them when it adds something to the story. However, most of the time a good director abides by certain rules of continuity in order not to confuse the viewer and to provide the program with a sound structure.

Continuity is necessary—built into both shooting and editing. We will focus on visual, sound, and performance continuity as well as continuity of action, keeping in mind that these variables sometimes overlap and that the overall perception of continuity depends on a close interrelationship of these variables. The following discussion contains a series of guidelines that can be followed to maintain that logical flow—continuity—on the screen in the areas mentioned earlier. Of course, the number one guideline is good planning!

• Visual Continuity

Directional Continuity Continuous action on the screen, such as left-to-right motion, must be maintained. If subjects or objects flip from one side of the screen to the other without the director using the proper techniques to alter the initial screen direction, such as showing the actual subject changing direction, using panning camera shots, or inserting neutral directional shots (action directly toward or away from the camera), the audience may lose its sense of direction. (See Figure 8.3.)

Spatial Continuity Space is defined as the environment in which the event takes place. It is sometimes wise to start with an establishing shot and then move to medium and close-up shots. Make sure that objects, the location of performers, distance between objects and performers, and their relationship within the frame remain unchanged as you move from shot to shot and change point of view, lenses, and camera angles or perspective. (See Figure 8.4.)

Lighting Continuity Lighting is one of the most important factors in the perception of continuity. Make sure that lighting is consistent in successive shots or scenes and that colors in costumes, faces, and the general appearance of the location remain unaltered. The passage of time, as we experience it in real life, is particularly sensitive to changes in the lighting scheme, so special care has to be taken to ensure that indications of such changes are reflected from scene to scene. One common problem is the editing of adjacent shots that were shot with different cameras that have not been color-balanced to match the color characteristics or the original scene. This is as true for studio production as it is for field production.

• Sound Continuity

Continuity of Narration, Dialog, and Music Consistency in the delivery of dialog or music is important to maintain the viewer’s sense of a continuous flow of events. Keep the tone of voice and volume consistent with the action on the screen. When shooting, keep microphones at regular distances from subjects to maintain the talent’s presence throughout the scene.

Background Audio Natural sound (in field production) and music (in both studio and field production) are the most common background sounds. Pay special attention to changes of sounds between scenes. If the location remains the same but shots or scenes were shot at different times, are the background sounds the same? A slight difference may cause the viewer to become confused. Also, be aware of sound perspective. Do the sounds match the visuals? Is the close-up of the motorcycle matched by the loud sound of its engine? Does the soft sound of the engine match the long shot of the motorcycle?

Audio Levels Make sure that audio levels are properly set during the shooting and are properly maintained during the editing process.

• PERFORMANCE CONTINUITY Make sure performers have similar gestures, positions, and expressions from shot to shot. This is particularly applicable to single-camera production in which there may be a need to repeat an action in successive takes of the shot or scene.

• CONTINUITY OF ACTION The 180-Degree Rule is perhaps the most important rule to follow to maintain consistent screen direction for characters or objects in motion on the screen. When shooting a dramatic scene or an interview or sporting event such as a football or basketball game in which action moves in one direction and then back again, the director must determine the position of the principal line of action and keep all camera shots to one side of the imaginary line that follows the main subject’s action. To identify this line, also called the principal action axis, look at the direction of the action in a scene and draw a line tracing it. (See Figure 8.5.) For example, in an interview the line of action would be traced by the direction of the looks between the interviewer and the guest. In a basketball or football game the line would extend from one end zone or basket to the end zone or basket at the other end of the field or court.

■ Depth

For a director to make the screen image appear to be realistic, the illusion of depth must be created on the screen through the manipulation of a variety of visual tools. The problem, of course, is that the real world is three-dimensional (height, width, depth), but the television or video screen is a flat, two-dimensional (width, height) object.

The following pictorial depth cues have been used by artists going back centuries, and they convey to the viewer a sense of depth: the perception of subjects or objects as being near or farther away.² More than one of these cues can be used in conjunction with others to further enhance the illusion of depth.

• INTERPOSITION, OCCLUSION, OR OVERLAPPING PLANES Objects partially cover part of another object. We perceive the covered object as being farther away than the covering object. In Figure 8.6 the hillside houses create many overlapping planes which enhance the perception of depth.

• LINEAR PERSPECTIVE Parallel lines receding into the background appear to converge in the distance. (See Figure 8.7.)

• AERIAL PERSPECTIVE Objects in the foreground appear sharper and more color-saturated than distant objects in the background, which appear to be bluish and blurry. We perceive the mountains in Figure 8.8 as being farther away than the trees.

• RELATIVE SIZE On the basis of past experiences and familiarity with known objects, we perceive smaller objects as being farther away. In Figure 8.9 the jars at the back of the picture are smaller than the jars in the foreground. Therefore we perceive the smaller appearing jars as being farther away.

• RELATIVE HEIGHT OR HEIGHT IN PLANE Objects that are higher in the plane appear farther away than those in the lower part of the screen. (See Figure 8.10.) The swan lower in the frame appears to be closer than the swan that is higher in the frame.

• SHADOWS Attached and cast shadows also provide visual cues for depth. An attached shadow will render the object as solid, and a cast shadow will affect the viewer’s perception of how close or far away the object is. (See Figure 8.11.)

• LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, RELATIVE SIZE, AND Z-AXIS Motion within the frame can take place on the x, y, or z axis. Movement to the left or right side of the screen is x-axis movement; movement up or down in the frame is y-axis movement. Motion on the z-axis means to bring the action or subject movement toward or away from the camera. Using z-axis movement in conjunction with relative size and linear perspective increases the viewer’s perception of a three-dimensional space. (See Figure 8.12.)

These depth cues bring us closer to experiencing reality when we watch a flat television screen. A common characteristic of all of them is that images are constructed with distinct foreground, middle ground, and background elements.

■ Visual Composition

By now we know that one of the most important roles of the director is to embed his or her vision and style into the program to make it as effective as the producer originally intended it to be. One of the most significant elements of visualization is the way in which the camera and its lens are used to create the visual images that appear on the television screen.

There are two ways in which the quality of a shot can be evaluated: technically and aesthetically. Color saturation, video levels, brightness, and contrast influence the technical quality of a shot. From an aesthetic perspective we must consider factors such as field of view and balance within the frame (composition and framing), screen size and aspect ratio, the rule of thirds, and camera movement, among many others. This section will examine composition, framing, and the rule of thirds. Your awareness of and mastery of these factors will help you to give an aesthetically sound structure to your video.

• COMPOSITION Although visual composition, in its broadest sense, may be thought of as including all the aesthetic factors mentioned, here we will refer to it as field of view. The following shot descriptions refer to the field of view that is apparent in the shot—that is, how much of a subject or an object is seen within the screen. It is important to have a terminology for shots because these shot descriptions are used by writers to describe shots in written scripts and by directors and videographers to communicate to the other crew members how they want a shot or scene to look. (See Figure 8.13.)

The extreme long shot (XLS) provides the audience with an overall view of the large scene. Although individual details may be hard to see, this shot nevertheless is important to establish the relationship between the parts and the whole or to create impact through the use of wide-open spaces. (See Figure 8.13a.)

The long shot (LS) is not as wide as the XLS. However, it shows the positional relationship between subjects, objects, and settings. A long shot is often used as an establishing shot because it establishes locale and the relationships between the individual parts of the shot. (See Figure 8.13b.)

The medium shot (MS) is not as wide as an LS or as tight as a close-up. The medium shot is used to show the relationship between people in a shot or a scene but does not present as much information about the setting as the long shot. (See Figure 8.13c.)

The medium close-up (MCU) is probably the most widely used shot in video production. It consists of a head-and-shoulder shot that ends at the chest of the subject. The medium close-up shows full-face detail of the subject without the extreme impact of the close-up. (See Figure 8.13d.)

The close-up (CU) is a very powerful shot that consists of a tight shot of the subject’s head (or any part if the body that you wish to show in detail). A close-up of an object practically fills the screen. The close-up is one of the most effective shots available for providing a close view of the details of a face or an object. (See Figure 8.13e.)

The extreme close-up (XCU) is the tightest shot possible for the subject. On a person, the XCU frames the subject’s eyes and nose or mouth. If both the eyes and mouth will not fit in the frame, it is usually better to frame the shot to include the eyes and nose rather than the nose and mouth. (See Figure 8.13f.)

The terms 1-shot, 2-shot, and 3-shot refer to the number of people that appear in the shot. Thus a medium 2-shot is a medium shot that includes two people, a long 3-shot is a long shot that includes three people, and so on. (See Figure 8.13g.)

The over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) is widely used in dramatic productions and interviews. It enhances the illusion of depth by placing a subject in the foreground. (See Figure 8.13h.)

The reverse over-the-shoulder shot (RO/S) helps to establish direction and continuity in staging a conversation. It also helps to establish the emotional and psychological relationship between subjects by showing facial expressions. It can be used to cover action or as a reaction shot. (See Figure 8.13i.)

• FRAMING Framing refers to the placement of a person or an object within the video frame. When a person is the subject of a shot, two compositional elements related to framing come into play: headroom and noseroom.

Headroom is the distance between the top of the person’s head and the top edge of the frame. In gauging the correct amount of headroom, the director or camera operator usually tries not to leave too much or too little space at the top of the frame. With too little headroom the person appears to stick to the top of the frame. This simply looks wrong to the viewer. Similarly, if the subject is placed too low in the frame (too much headroom), the person appears to be sinking out of the frame.

There is no formula for determining how much headroom is correct, although more headroom is appropriate on longer shots, and less headroom works better on close-ups. (See the examples in Figure 8.14.) Pay special attention to headroom whenever you zoom in or out on a subject. In general, as you zoom out and the subject becomes smaller, headroom will increase. You will need to tilt the camera downward to compensate for this. On the other hand, as you zoom in and the subject becomes larger, the amount of headroom will decrease, creating the need to tilt the camera upward. However, once the field of view approaches a CU or XCU angle, headroom may be eliminated in order to create an image with more pleasing composition.

Noseroom is the distance between the edge of the nose of the person in the shot and the edge of the video frame. In reality, eyeroom might be a better term to use than noseroom because it is the person’s eyes, not the nose, that create a powerful force within the frame. Correct framing is based on the direction in which the eyes are focused, the dynamics of the story, and the graphic composition of the picture. (See Figure 8.15.) For example, if the subject looks toward one side of the frame, the rules of good framing dictate that the camera pan slightly to allow sufficient eyeroom or noseroom so that the person does not appear to be glued to the side of the frame.

• RULE OF THIRDS In the rule of thirds the screen is divided into three equal parts both horizontally and vertically. (See Figure 8.16.) The four points that are located one-third of the distance from the four corners of the frame are considered to be the optimal location for objects and people of importance to the story. In practice, this type of composition offers an unobstructed view of the objects or people that are central to the story but with a relatively neutral treatment.