12
Graphics and Set Design
Graphic elements within television and video programs include a variety of visual materials ranging from simple titles to elaborate settings. Graphics are an increasingly important part of the creative process of television and video production because they contribute significantly to the unique look and feel of each program and because they can be used to add additional information on the screen.
Graphic elements are used in a variety of ways, from displaying the name of a person on the screen to depicting a whole setting in which action is staged. Graphics can catch the viewer’s attention at the start of a show, they can provide information about the people who appear on screen, or they can immerse the viewer in a completely artificial environment. Electronic means of designing titles and sets have largely displaced the traditional mechanical methods of the past. (See Figure 12.1.)
There are three main stages in the design and production of graphics for television and video: design, creation, and integration. (See Figure 12.2.) This chapter will deal mainly with the design stage because the creation and integration of graphics for television and video often require specialized production tools and software that demand a more complex treatment than we are able to provide here.
Design: The Guiding Principles
Regardless of the type of graphics or their content, there is a set of principles that can be applied to assist in their design and production. Of paramount importance are the concepts of unity, clarity, and style.
■ Unity
For a program to be effective, it must contain unity. All graphics must be in harmony with the overall content and look of the program. Each graphic element must be coordinated with the others to support the major theme or purpose of the program. Despite the many different graphic elements that may be found in a program, they must all have a constancy of purpose—unity in diversity—to provide continuity and coherence to the program. Failure to coordinate these elements may cause the viewer to be distracted or to focus on some unique quality of the graphics rather than on the content of the program itself. For example, look at the following series of numbers:
- uno, two, three, 4, funf, six, seven
This list obviously lacks unity of expression; it mixes three different languages as well as words and numerals. The use of these numbers in a documentary or news report would most likely be dysfunctional. However, in a comedy or language program it could provide effective visual or content support.
Unity of expression includes control of all aesthetic elements and expositional factors that enhance the presentation of the message, including elements such as color, sound, lighting, camera angles, and editing, which were discussed in the previous chapters.
■ Clarity
The concept of clarity involves both simplicity of expression and the visibility of the graphic elements or characters themselves. It is important to keep the inherent audiovisual characteristics of the television screen in mind. For instance, the display of a full page of newsprint on a video screen means that each word will be too small to be readable. In this case the value of the content will be lost because the graphic presentation is incompetent and the principle of clarity has been violated. Functional and practical factors in the preparation of television graphics must be considered if clarity and intelligibility are to be preserved.
■ Style
The style of a video presentation can take many forms. It may be realistic (as is the case for most news and documentary programs), expressive (as in a music video), or abstract (as in experimental drama and dance). Again, the style has to do with the look and feel of the program that the producers are trying to capture.
Once the question of basic style has been answered for the program, attention can be given to the design and preparation of graphic elements that will reinforce its expression. Graphics should be compatible with settings and costumes. For example, lettering for graphics for a program that is set in a modern hospital should reinforce elements of that setting (e.g., modern, antiseptic, scientific). Use of an Old English alphabet to identify modern surgical procedures would distract the audience. All lettering, regardless of source, must match the other visual elements of the production.
Basic Factors in the Design of Graphics for Television and Video
In designing graphic materials for television and video, a set of basic factors that will determine the effectiveness of those materials needs to be considered. These factors include the aspect ratio, screen size, and essential area of the television screen and the color and brightness of the graphics themselves.
■ Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is the relationship between the width of the screen (horizontal dimension) and its height (vertical dimension). Regardless of its size, the screen is a rectangle with an aspect ratio of four units wide by three units tall (expressed as 4 × 3 or 4:3) for the conventional standard definition signal or sixteen units wide by nine units tall (16 × 9 or 16:9) for high definition television, which has become the prevailing format for almost all current television and video screens. (See Figure 12.3.)
With the advent of high definition television several problems have arisen with respect to accommodating both the conventional and wide aspect ratios. Feature films that were shot in widescreen formats fit well on the 16:9 screen but not on the 4:3 screen. To make them fit, only a 4:3 portion of the picture is shown (either the center is shown or the view is “panned and scanned,” depending on the center of interest in the shot), or the entire picture is shrunk down into a letterbox in the center of the 4:3 screen. Shrinking the size of the picture leaves a gap at the top and the bottom of the screen that is filled with black. (See Figure 12.4.)
Producers who want to avoid letterbox displays on 4:3 format screens often use the shoot and protect method of shooting. The principal action is recorded in the central area of the 16:9 frame, leaving essential scene details out of the left and right sides of the picture. In this way the picture can be cropped down to 4:3 without losing important scene elements. (See Figure 12.4.) Viewfinders on cameras that are capable of widescreen recording typically have a 4:3 safe area template that helps the cameraperson keep the action within the safe area.
■ Screen Size
The major problem related to size is the tendency to put more information on the screen than the viewer can see clearly at a normal distance. This concept of audience distance from the screen is very important.
Computer users sit very close to the screen and are accustomed to looking at screens with a large amount of textual information. Television and video viewing presents a different situation because the audience sits much farther away from the screen and cannot see small detail as well. For example, the home viewer sits six to eight feet from the screen, and the student in a classroom might be more than 30 feet from the screen and forced to view the screen from less than an optimum angle. For this reason, graphics that are designed for television are most effective when they rely on strong, simple expressions in both text and symbols. Although large-screen home theater displays make it easier to see complex graphic displays, the second or third screen in a home is likely to be relatively smaller, and for viewers watching on a smartphone the screen will be even smaller yet although it will be viewed at a closer distance.
■ Essential Area
Because of differences in the amount of the picture that different television receivers and monitors display, in preparing graphics for video, it is important to leave a margin around the edges of the screen. All graphics must fit within a screen space that excludes the outer 10% of the top, bottom, left, and right edges of the screen. This space is known as the essential area. (See Figure 12.5.)
Another term for essential area is safe title area. Some camera viewfinders display a safe title area template superimposed over the image the camera sees as an aid to framing. Many computer-based video graphics and editing programs that are used in the design of titles and animation contain safe title templates as well.
A very common situation arises when individuals, places, or objects that appear in a program need to be identified visually on the screen. The conventional treatment is to superimpose some brief identifying information in the lower-third of the frame. This is particularly important when the picture on the screen is a medium close-up of someone talking. You do not want the titles to appear over the subject’s mouth. (See Figure 12.6.)
■ Color and Brightness
The visibility of objects and lettering is most often improved through the use of contrasting colors. For example, yellow letters against a dark blue background will be easier to read than will light blue letters against the same dark blue background. In general, if we use highly saturated (rich) colors, it is best to use them against dull background tones. Besides making the graphics more readable, it allows the saturated colors to bring attention to a particular attribute or aspect of a graphic. In addition, attention must be given to the relative brightness of those colors. (See Figure 12.7.)
Create: Production Processes and Sources of Graphics
In multicamera live television production graphics are integrated in real time as the program unfolds. For edited programs, graphics are added during postproduction.
■ Computer-Generated Graphics
Most graphics used in television and video today are computer-generated. Even the simple titling feature in consumer camcorders relies on a computer chip. In the professional production arena two of the most common sources for computer-generated graphics are character generators (CGs) and graphic and image-processing software.
• CHARACTER GENERATORS (CGS) Character generators are used to create text (titling) on a television screen. Even though all nonlinear editing software incorporates some sort of CG capabilities, character generation for high-end productions is usually done with sophisticated standalone character generator workstations made by Ross and Chyron (pronounced as kai-ron), among others.
Not only can lettering in a variety of styles be generated electronically by a character generator, but many CGs include animation, paint, and digital effects functions as well.
• GRAPHIC AND IMAGE-PROCESSING SOFTWARE Software programs such as Adobe Photoshop and Adobe After Effects are widely used to create still graphics and animated images. These programs work with layers of images that can be combined in different ways and also allow the use of color correction and effects filters.
Two-Dimensional (2-D) Graphics Advances in 2-D software make drawing, painting, and animation effects available to almost anyone, including low-budget studio and field producers. (See Figure 12.8.) In drawing systems the artist uses an electronic pen to draw on a special tablet that translates the pen’s movement into a digital image. Painting systems allow the artist to add shadow and texture, and animation allows the artist to move the graphic within the frame.
Three-Dimensional (3-D) Graphics Advances in 3-D graphics are even more spectacular. Some systems provide hundreds of predesigned images that can appear to be illuminated from any angle, can be seen from any angle, and can be made to rotate and move from foreground to background. These systems allow the artist to create unique environments by manipulating volumes, objects, image layering, shadows, and animation. (See Figure 12.9.)
Compositing Compositing programs allow multiple layers of video to be manipulated. Character generation software is an example of a simple compositing program, in which a layer of letters is combined with a background layer of video. Sophisticated software allows the artist or video editor to manipulate the images in multiple layers of video with varying degrees of transparency or opacity. (See Figure 12.10.)
Digital compositing is responsible for some of the most dramatic special effects in modern television and feature films. Through compositing, graphic images can be merged with live footage to create stunning effects, as was done in Jurassic Park (real people, electronically generated dinosaurs), Titanic, Avatar, and the Star Wars saga.
Although these large-budget productions garner the most attention, compositing is quickly entering the realm of smaller video productions as well. An increasing number of nonlinear editing applications that are available for small editing workstations now include some degree of compositing capabilities.
Integrate: Integrating Graphics into a Video Production
As we noted earlier, there are several ways to integrate graphics into television or video programs. In multicamera live production, graphics are integrated into the program in real time with the use of the video switcher. As we discussed in Chapter 6, the video switcher can be used to introduce keys and a variety of digital video effects that can be used in conjunction with the program’s graphic elements.
For edited programs, graphics are incorporated during the editing process. Program titles, credits, and name keys can be created by using the built-in CG or titling tools software or by importing graphics created in appropriate software applications elsewhere.
It is important to note that new graphic tools are appearing every day in the marketplace with hundreds of prefabricated graphics and effects. This makes the creation and incorporation of graphics more accessible to the average video producer. However, keep in mind that the effectiveness of graphics, like any other aspect of production, depends more on planning and design than on the sophistication of the systems that are used to create them.
Set Design
All along we have emphasized the importance of teamwork in the video production process. Set design is just one more aspect of that process. Set design brings together various people with different skills for the purpose of providing the show with a particular setting to enhance the viewer’s audiovisual experience.
Designing and building a set requires the creativity of the producer or director, the talent of the set designer, the skills of the lighting director, the handiness of the builders, and the overall efforts of the production team. Depending on the complexity of the program, the responsibility for designing and building the set may fall on one or several members of the production team.
Regardless of complexity, set design involves a sequential series of steps that have to be taken in order to successfully construct the desired set. Figure 12.11 shows the steps involved in the creation of a performing space—the set—for a video production.
■ The Concept
Set design is a key element in the visualization of the concept established by the director and/or producer during the early stages of the production process. Sets can be designed to recreate real-life environments, as in the case of soap operas and dramatic series, or they can be designed to provide a more abstract presentational space, as in newscasts. (See Figure 12.12.) The set can be as simple as sitting a performer in front of curtains in the background or as complex as the set for the Emmy Awards telecast.
During the concept development stage, the set designer meets with the director and producer to go over the idea for the program and the script in order to understand the basic, underlying concepts of the story and the functions of the set. Is the set meant to recreate a specific environment? What mood is it to establish? How will the performers use the setting? Two important issues to discuss during this stage are deadlines and the amount of resources (money, props, crew, computer system, software if a virtual set, etc.) that are available to accomplish the task.
■ Design
During the design stage, the designer prepares drawings or sketches of the proposed set for the producer or director. A very important step in the set design process is the design of a floor plan. A floor plan is a diagram of the studio floor showing the design and arrangement (layout) of set properties (props for short) such as furniture, potted plants, and doors and windows if applicable, drawn to scale and as seen from above. (See Figure 12.13.) The most common scale is ¼ inch equals one foot. You can find stencils or templates with cutouts in this scale for furniture and other common set pieces. In addition, several drawing and design software packages are available on the market, such as Microsoft’s Visio.
A well-designed and accurately drawn diagram of a floor plan will lay the basic foundation for a good lighting plot. (See Figure 3.25 for the lighting plot for a simple one-person news or presentation set.)
■ Built or Virtual?
Set design is part art (creative finesse) and part craft (technical skills). Once the artistic work of the design has been completed, the technical phase of craftsmanship begins.
• BUILT SETS Sets can be built by simply bringing into the studio some props such as sofas, end tables, and desks, or they can be constructed from a variety of materials, including fabrics, plywood, metal, and cardboard. Whichever the case, one of the most common set building units is the flat.
Flats Flats are panels that are designed to create the illusion of interior settings and walls. Figure 12.14 shows the diagram of a flat with an opening for a door. A flat’s frame is usually made out of one-by-three-inch wood with ¼-inch plywood corner blocks to reinforce the corners.
Horizontal braces called toggle bars and side braces called stiles also support flats. In most situations more than one flat is required to represent a setting. You should use a piece of cord or clothesline to secure each flat to the next. Flats are usually eight or ten feet high and anywhere from two to five feet wide. A brace is attached to the back of the flat to support it in the studio, and sandbags are used to weigh down the brace so that the whole assembly remains securely in place.
There are two types of flats: soft and hard. Soft flats are made of wood and fabric. They are lightweight, so it is easy to move them around the studio, but they require good care to avoid damage. Hard wall flats are made out of lumber; they are usually very heavy but can take much more use and abuse than a soft flat without being damaged.
There are also modular set design pieces on the market that can be assembled in different configurations to construct a variety of settings for television shows such as news and instructional programs. These modules can be quickly taken apart and stored on carts for ease of movement around the studio.
Set pieces used as backgrounds may have scenery painted onto them (see Figure 12.15), or they can be “painted” with colored light to provide an interesting background for interview or talk shows.
Risers Another common set piece is the riser, a low platform constructed out of plywood. The function of the riser is to raise the set so that the cameras are at the performers’ eye level, particularly when the performers are seated. Risers are widely used on news and interview sets.
• VIRTUAL SETS A virtual set is a system in which a live performer is placed in a computer-generated three-dimensional environment. The insertion process is similar to that of the chroma key—removing a blue or green background and replacing it with another image or video clip—except that in a virtual set the actors or talent appears to be immersed in and interacting with a three-dimensional setting. (See Figure 12.16.)
In a traditional chroma key setting, the camera cannot move because the two-dimensional background remains static. In a virtual three‑dimensional setting, when the camera moves, sophisticated computer graphics software connected to a camera tracking system matches perspective and size changes in the background with those in the foreground. For this reason a virtual set designer must have knowledge of and expertise in studio settings as well as in computerized 3-D modeling.
Virtual sets are used today in a wide variety of video programs, including newscasts, children’s programs, dramas, and scientific and educational programs. As the technology improves and becomes more affordable, we will see even more frequent use of virtual sets in an even wider range of television and video programs.
■ Set Design in Action
Set design must take into account the interrelation between the movement of the talent, camera angles, and director’s calls. For instance, in a newscast, the full set may be shown only at the beginning and end of segments within the program from different angles and only for a few seconds at a time. Most of the time during the newscast the viewer will see medium and close-up shots of anchors and reporters or video clips. But those few seconds should be enough to create a lasting impression of the program’s identity. The set designer and director must work together on this issue and make sure that every detail regarding the position and form of the set is in harmony with talent’s movements and the desired camera angles and framing.
In summary, set designers must work closely with producers and directors and become very acquainted with the program conceptualization and script. Every set piece must add value to the program’s overall visual quality. Set pieces should have not only form, but also function, and allow for effective interaction with movement of the talent or performers.