CHAPTER 1

Effective Presentation Skills

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Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. describe the parts of a presentation;
2. explain the elements of presentation purpose, preparation, and delivery;
3. discuss how to use emotional intelligence to make presentations more effective;
4. identify patterns of speech that can make language more inspiring and persuasive;
5. design effective charts, graphs, and tables.

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Introduction

While giving an oral presentation is the number one fear that many people have, mastering the art of the presentation is essential to becoming a successful leader. Doing so will allow you to be a leader who possesses the ability to connect positively with your employees or audience. If you know what is important, and you get that message across, you are on your way to being an effective leader. To be a good leader, you must understand your strengths and weaknesses, have a vision and passion that others can see, be willing to take risks, be a good communicator, and produce results. It is not easy to persuade, inform, and entertain your audience in order to reach their emotions or to move the audience to action. Developing the ability to influence people will take preparation and perseverance. Remember that a presentation is only effective if the audience changes their beliefs or actions, obtains more information, or merely enjoys being entertained.

Managers need to know what they want to accomplish when they give a presentation. In this chapter, we will discuss the fundamentals of presentation: (1) purpose, preparation, and delivery; (2) speech dangers and filled pauses (FP); (3) using emotional intelligence; (4) using figures of speech; and (5) proper use of charts, graphs, and tables.

Purpose, Preparation, and Delivery

The three essential elements of an effective presentation are purpose, preparation, and delivery. Each aspect is critical to achieving effective results. As you begin thinking about a planned presentation, you must first understand the purpose of your presentation. What do you want the audience to know? Then select the appropriate type of media for that purpose.

Purpose

Your purpose can be to persuade, inform, or entertain your audience. Each of these purposes has a corresponding objective. When you persuade, you convince someone to believe what you are telling him or her—you are changing his or her mind. When you inform, you are giving the individual information or facts that they need. When you entertain, you are making someone feel good, such as telling a joke or finding something of common interest to talk about.

Busy customers, clients, and company personnel will give up moments of their precious time to listen to your presentations. Delivering an effective presentation is imperative. There is an old cliché to which many business people can still relate: “If you don’t have time to do it right the first time, where will you find the time to do it right a second time!” The measure of any good presentation is the accomplishment of the speaker’s purpose.

Let us consider the possible objectives of each presentation type:

• Persuasive presentations can be designed with an objective to
  • cause a change in belief
  • cause a change in immediate actions
• Informative presentations can be designed with
  • a narrative objective
  • a descriptive objective
  • an explanatory objective
• Entertainment presentations have an objective to offer gratification, achieved when your audience experiences a sense of satisfaction.

Your audience will need to feel a sense of satisfaction, regardless of the purpose of the presentation. When the audience is unsatisfied, achieving your purpose and objective is jeopardized. Table 1.1 shows examples of a presenter’s purposes and objectives for various speaking occasions.

In climbing the managerial ladder, most people eventually reach a level of responsibility where they are required to give a presentation from time to time. Motivating lethargic and even demoralized employees with vivid and vital language is often times required. Presenting a business plan before a review board to secure financing for a project is part of many managers’ tasks. In both cases, the manager must use language that is applicable to the audience.

One example of an effective persuasive presentation might be an appeal for the approval of the budgeted amount for pay increases. Giving the presentation to a budget committee for a large, nonprofit organization just before an annual budget review is very common. The desired result of the presentation would be to get the board approval of an increase in the line-item amount for employee salaries. The presenting manager’s purpose would be to be persuasive, the objective would be targeting a change in the board members’ actions (the board actually approving the raises), and the occasion is selling or promoting the pay raise idea.

An example of an effective informative presentation is for a middle manager seeking to inform all 25 frontline supervisors about a crucial procedural change for an assembly-line operation. The stated purpose is informative. The objective in this case would be explanatory, showing the benefits of a change in the way of doing things. The occasion would be a conference room setting or small classroom. This personal approach would be more effective than sending an e-mail message.

If the speaker’s purpose is merely to entertain, the rules governing that purpose are somewhat different. An example would be a 2-minute after-dinner presentation congratulating a colleague on a promotion or an extraordinary accomplishment. While the primary objective of an entertaining presentation is audience gratification, the element of gratification is present in all three types of presentations. Do not leave your audience unsatisfied, regardless of your purpose.

Sometimes the news delivered in a presentation is dreadful, such as in Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (FDR’s) war address. But the speech did not come without gratification, which was in the president’s planned response to Japan’s aggression. Later in this chapter, we will look more closely at FDR’s war presentation.

Preparation

Preparation requires organization because too much of disorganized information can be overwhelming for both the presenter and audience.

All presentations have three main elements. The introductions function is to tell them what you will tell them (TTWYWTT). An example would be: “Today we are going to discuss the development of the new production line for Crispy Treats.” The body’s function is to tell them (TT). An example would include covering the main points known about the production line for Crispy Treats. Finally, the conclusion’s function is to TT what you just told them: TTWYJTT. The example here would include a summary by the presenter of the major points, and then the floor would be open for a discussion. The acronyms for these three major elements are helpful when you organize your presentation materials.

Good organization is essential for an effective presentation. Getting organized includes brainstorming, researching your topic, and developing an outline. Before you research the topic, organize your ideas into a rough draft of main points (MP). Develop the first-draft outline by talking aloud and writing down what you already know about the topic. Thoroughly research the topic to refine your knowledge on that subject. Researching articles and books, performing interviews, or finding information on the Internet can increase your knowledge on your targeted topic. Developing your outline helps you organize your ideas into a rough draft of MP. Subordinate points (SP) extend the logical unfolding of the MP, as shown in Figure 1.1.

Roman numerals precede MP; capital letters of the English alphabet precede SP; Arabic numerals precede sub-subordinate points (SSP); and lowercase letters of the English alphabet precede sub-sub-subordinate points (SSSP). In the rare case, a SSSP would need to be extended use lower case Roman numbers to precede SSSSPs. The outline in Figure 1.2 illustrates an MP on financing a small business startup. Note that each MP should have at least two sublevels of the logical extension reflected by its SPs.

After you have determined the purpose of your presentation and the organization of content, you need to determine how best to deliver the material. There are four traditional methods for preparing information for presentation: memory, manuscript (read), impromptu, and extemporaneous (Sandford and Yeager 1942).

Types of Presentations

The memory method is used for a presentation memorized word-for-word and committed totally to memory. The danger of forgetting information is a disadvantage of the memory method. When you try to memorize an entire presentation, forgetting key parts will lead to problems. Skipping key parts of the presentation make it difficult to get back on track. Managers who memorize their presentations will often find themselves at a loss when they forget key parts due to distractions or interruptions. Adjusting to the audience’s needs is also difficult with a memorized delivery. However, when you need to recite information, it may be good to memorize it first.

The manuscript method involves writing out your presentation and reading it to your audience, sometimes with the help of a teleprompter. Normally dignitaries, prime ministers, presidents of nations, and other high-level diplomats and political leaders use this method, because it allows for careful word choice with a lesser chance of forgetting information or inserting an errant word. For example, when the president of the United States speaks on the subject of aggression toward nations in the Middle East, it can have serious effects on how those nations view the United States. Words are carefully chosen in advance, and there can be no variation in the content. Misstatements can lead to disastrous results.

The impromptu method applies to casual conversations in business meetings and to more relaxed presentation situations. Holding a question-and-answer session after a planned presentation is an application of this method. The impromptu method is characterized by unscripted delivery. This does not mean that the presenter is unprepared. In fact, good speakers are always prepared, should the opportunity arise.

Impromptu speakers rely on their bank of knowledge and the use of commonly known arguments, or stock arguments, to add flavor and interest to their presentation.

The extemporaneous method involves the use of a formal outline, a defined purpose, detailed research, and organized MP and SP. The speech is delivered conversationally and naturally with enthusiasm and poise. It is the most commonly used presentation method in business and is the most effective method for achieving a persuasive purpose. It typically begins with an outline that includes main ideas and subordinate ideas, and it requires multiple practice sessions to enhance both vocal and nonverbal delivery skills. Although the main ideas are committed to memory, the presentation is not a word-for-word delivery. The speaker is free to use spontaneous words and phrases for a more conversational delivery and maximum flexibility.

The elevator presentation is the name given to very short presentations that can be delivered in the time required for a typical elevator ride. Usually, 30 seconds to 1 minute in length, elevator presentations contain all the elements of an effective oral presentation and are delivered in close proximity to a small captive audience. Since the average rate of speech for most Americans is 130 to 150 words per minute, the total words in the presentation should be planned accordingly. Preparing the elevator presentation in advance should not take away the conversational quality of the delivery. The audience normally will be one or a few persons who can influence an important decision affecting the presenter. The action-oriented elevator presentation means that you will need to know clearly your persuasive intent. Though you should not memorize the presentation, practice thoroughly and be prepared to discuss fully your main ideas or selling points, should the opportunity arise.

Delivery

The delivery of your presentation is what the audience sees, hears, and what ultimately determines if your message is believable. A good delivery makes for an effective presentation and includes both vocal and nonverbal cues. Practicing both elements of your presentation is fundamental to a good delivery. When practicing, do not stop each time you think you have made a mistake; instead, keep going, and take mental notes as you progress. Practice in increments of 30 minutes. If you have 3 hours to practice, divide that time into six separate sessions.

Delivery is fundamental because no amount of preparation, content, planning will overcome poor delivery skills. Window into Practical Reality 1.1 relates one of the most important speeches in history; one that asked soldiers in World War II to give their lives on behalf of their country.

General George S. Patton’s speech “Invasion of Normandy” was a final pep talk delivered to his troops on May 17, 1944. It is the prototypical persuasive speech to stir the audience to immediate action, and Patton’s delivery was key. We are sure that General Patton thought about what he was going to say, but he did not deliver this as a written speech but as an extemporaneous speech with no notes!

A presenter such as General Patton will also look for cues that the audience has received and interpreted the encoded message correctly. The speaker must interpret those cues from observations while presenting. The audience will send the source an encoded message in the form of applause, nodding, eye contact, and so on. This nonverbal body language is feedback about the audiences’ understanding of the message and will help the speaker to make the necessary adjustments.

Proper understanding by the audience is crucial, if your presentations are to achieve your intended purpose. You will refine your message throughout your presentation based on receiving and responding to verbal and nonverbal cues from your audience. Extraneous sidebar conversations, restlessness, and nodding are good indications that you should immediately shift to a more appropriate tone, pitch, topic, or delivery method.

Speech Dangers and Filled Pauses

Eye contact with the audience is essential to giving an effective presentation, as it engages individuals and causes them to feel that you are talking directly to them. Most people will form their impressions about the presenter within about a minute, and effective eye contact is key to making a favorable impression.

Nervous speech and actions early in your presentation can lead to a negative first impression on your audience. These distractions that generally happen at the beginning of a presentation are caused by the speaker’s nervousness and the accompanying adrenalin rush. Many times we are not even aware of our nonverbal habits (McKenzie 2002). A great idea is to have someone video record you while you are giving a presentation, then critique it with someone you respect. Watch the audience as well as yourself to gauge the effectiveness of your presentation.

Observing the body language of your audience can reveal much about their acceptance of your ideas. If they are shuffling their feet, furrowing their brow, or not looking at you, they are probably not following you. In response to a controversial topic, audience members may grimace, turn their head and upper torso away from you, clench their teeth, or take a confrontational stance such as putting their hands on their hips. Recognition of body language is very important for the audience to understand what the speaker is saying, but also so the speaker understands what the audience is receiving or rejecting.

Bender (1991) and Detz (2007) each presented 12 solutions to better enable managers to deliver effective presentations. In Table 1.2, note the similarities of each authors’ views concerning the elements of effective presentations. Detz (2014) offers a plethora of good delivery tips in her recent book titled, How to Write & Give a Speech.

Effective oral presentations do not have to be perfect, but presenters must be prepared. Figure 1.3 provides a convenient list of executive oral presentations missteps and solutions for those missteps (Bates 2007).

Filled pauses (FP) refer to a situation in which the presenter uses repetitious, irrelevant words or phrases without being consciously aware it is happening. Examples of fillers include um, uh, like, you see, or any other repetitive word or sound. Howell and Sackin (2001) argue that using FP in abundance contributes to what they call “fluency failure” in recognized speech. In a very interesting article, Schachter and others (1991) referred to the “agrammatical” use of FP among university lecturers as “disfluency.” Speakers appear to be uncertain and lack confidence when using needless repetitious words or phrases in abundance to fill pauses. In addition, it breaks the audience’s attention.

One study of communication behaviors showed that females engaged in more justifiers, intensifiers, and agreement than males; whereas, males engaged in more vocalized pauses and also received more vocalized pauses than females (Turner and Dindia 1995). To eliminate FP from your oral presentation requires three steps (1) learn to hear yourself using FP by undergoing some type of sensitivity training, such as recording and critiquing your presentations or having an expert critique with you; (2) practice FP reduction by paying close attention to its usage—create a cognitive transformation; and (3) practice being silent each time a pause is required for grammar, emphasis, and mental deliberation (Bell 2011).

Presenting with Emotions

Audiences are turned off when presenters lack emotions. Emotions are a part of any delivery, including business presentations. Being excited about your presentation is the surest way to exude emotion while presenting.

Too often, presenters fail to understand that their single most important job is to convey facts and ideas in a way that the audience will understand the benefits in an engaging manner. A humdrum talker delivers presentations in a monotone voice, and this type of behavior will more than guarantee an in-kind reaction from your audience. People resent presenters who lack enthusiasm, strong feelings, or sincerity in their presentation.

Sincerity is a quality that reflects an honest attempt to reach the audience and achieve the identified purpose. If listeners find a speaker to be sincere, they will trust and follow. Sincerity includes the qualities of honesty and passion for the topic. Emotions that are sincere and honest will help you connect with your audience.

What makes one person a better presenter than another? If two people are intellectual equals, why would they not be equally effective speakers? If both speakers read and applied the same tips, you would think both presentations would be equally impressive. However, we are not all created equal in every respect. In recent years, attention has focused on measures of intelligence that go beyond traditional “cognitive” or “school ready” indicators. Newer measures focus on verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, musical, visual/spatial, body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal (Gardner 1993).

Emotional intelligence is the ability to read others and respond in a way that matches their emotional reaction. Five identified domains of emotional intelligence include (1) knowing your own emotions, (2) managing your emotions, (3) motivating yourself, (4) recognizing emotions in others, and (5) handling relationships. While all five domains are applicable to delivering effective oral presentations, recognizing and managing your own feelings and those of others are key aspects of effective delivery. Smart people can appear socially and emotionally inept when they do not interpret their own and others’ emotions correctly. On the other hand, people who are emotionally intelligent know their true emotions, practice to control and manage fierce emotions, remain motivated by gaining control over their emotions, anticipate and balance theirs and others’ emotions, and foster fruitful relationships by communicating intelligently (Goleman 1995).

Persuasive Patterns Using Figures of Speech

Throughout history, a few remarkable leaders have demonstrated such amazing oratory powers that they were able to convince an entire nation to follow them. These incredibly gifted speakers used stylistic touches as vehicles by which they drove their messages home, convincing people to change both their beliefs and actions. A speaker deliberately uses figures of speech to raise language from the ordinary to a level of heightened intensity to further appeal to the audience emotionally. The speaker can appeal to the audience through their reasoning skills, through their emotions, by offering them a sense of urgency, or by appearing to have credibility as the speaker—as someone who knows.

Patrick Henry’s “Liberty or Death” presentation is such an example. Evoking emotion was the intent of his hammered down and chiseled stylistic words. Like a chef’s blade, Henry’s words sliced deep into the widely held truths and helped lawmakers see that young America’s independence could only be achieved through defiance of tyrannical control. There can be no doubt Henry’s purpose was to persuade lawmakers to take immediate action toward inevitable war. The resistance of the colonies to the attempts of England to tax them culminated in the Boston Tea Party of December 16, 1773, which resulted in the closing of the Port of Boston to British ships. The phrase “Liberty or Death” stands as a timeless antithesis and as an impassioned hyperbole. Henry was able to paint vivid, colorful pictures of inevitable doom as a certain result of American complacency. He skillfully used irony and antithesis to forge extreme psychic images of gloom for inaction and splendor of independence for immediate action. His phrase, “for my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery” (Parrish and Murphy 1947, p. 35) captured the thrust of his central thought.

Window into Practical Reality 1.2 illustrates another masterful use of speech by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in his state of war address on the occasion of the United States entry into World War II.

FDR delivered his moving presentation to the nation and Congress the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. Needing the permission from Congress to declare war on Japan, FDR went to the people to get the necessary support. You can clearly see the power of figures of speech in FDR’s address. He uses (a) personification, an attribution of personal form, character, or representation of a thing or abstraction as a person. He uses (b) synecdoche, a part is put for the whole or the whole for a part. He uses (c) antithesis, the contrasting of words, as when placed at the beginning and end of a single sentence or clause. He uses (d) tautology, repetition of the same words or use of synonymous words in close succession. He uses (e) interrogation-rhetorical question, a question not intended to elicit an answer, where the answer is understood.

Window into Practical Reality 1.3 illustrates how the mainstream media often uses hyperbole or litotes to heighten or lessen emotions among the masses, by framing a narrative on a particular issue, in order to gain consensus from the public on a particular point of view.

Using Charts, Graphs, and Tables

Visual aids often are beneficial to the effectiveness of the presentation and to conveying persuasive meanings. Body movement, eye contact, facial expression, mechanical devices, color usage in slides, electronic equipment (including PowerPoint or Prezi), and nontechnical devices (flip chart, chalkboard, transparency, etc.) are all examples of visual aids used to enhance the effectiveness of a presentation. The media you choose should fit the type of presentation you are giving. Different media will help you achieve different results. In addition, different media help different learners with their comprehension and learning of what you are speaking about.

Visual messages help reinforce the verbal message, which shifts an audience’s beliefs and actions toward the presenter’s purpose. Furthermore, people learn by hearing, seeing, and doing so engaging the audience is important. Visual messages are also important to decision making and analysis as they help guide the users through the decision-making process. The old saying, “a picture is worth 10,000 words,” can be very true. But it is also true that too many graphics can make for a cluttered message.

Charts and graphs are types of visual aids that help convey meaning. Six variations of charts can help you convey your presentation message; these include pie charts, bar charts, line charts, area charts, pictograms, and tables.

Pie charts compare parts of a whole or pieces of a pie. A slice represents a portion of the whole, for example, total sales by quarter. The whole pie represents the total sales for a given year. Chart 1.1 illustrates the quarterly percent of sales for four-quarters.

Note that each quarter’s sales is shown as a proportionate or percentage slice. The percentages must equal 100 percent, and the starting point of a pie chart is 12:00 noon. Pie charts should not be presented in 3D as this distorts the graph.

Bar charts, also known as column charts, compare or correlate data. Chart 1.2 illustrates a correlation of consumption of soybeans, wheat, and corn for four-quarters of a year.

A bar chart may be oriented horizontally or vertically, and both axes must be labeled clearly. Numbers may be shown at the top or end of the columns to mitigate any difficulty in interpreting each bar’s value. Again, 3D distorts these graphs and should not be used.

Line graphs compare time series data or frequency data. Line graphs show relative differences in quantities or changes in value over time, for example, enrollment trends among three business schools over a 3-year period. Chart 1.3 illustrates quarterly trends for the hypothetical quantities of soybeans, wheat, and corn sold in a year.

Area graphs compare geographic, spatial, or time data. Chart 1.4 illustrates a hypothetical comparison of the population of people facing starvation in a less developed country, and its correlation with economic prosperity in the United States.

By using quantitative comparison and contrasting colors, Chart 1.4 depicts an inverse relationship between the starvation in the less developed country and the economic progress in the United States.

Pictograms are much like pie charts or bar graphs; however, they use icons to exemplify the differences between the elements. Chart 1.5 illustrates the difference in cookie shop sales for peanut butter, ginger bread, and sugar cookies.

Managers use tables to report results for complex information that would require an unnecessary amount of written text to communicate. Chart 1.6 illustrates a hypothetical example of in-store sales for peanut butter, ginger bread, and sugar cookies at five different store locations.

The table data include actual sales of each type of cookie and the total sales, per location. Each location’s sales percentage, in proportion to the total sales of all five locations, is also shown. While Chart 1.6 emphasizes store location, Chart 1.7 emphasizes the types of cookies sold.

Frequency information and percentages will help your managerial decision making. For example, if a type of cookie should represent at least 10 percent of sales for all five store locations combined, Chart 1.6 is much better at helping you determine which cookie type must be eliminated at particular store locations. In our example, location three should not sell sugar cookies, and location five should not sell peanut butter and ginger bread cookies. On the other hand, Chart 1.7 illustrates that for in-store sales, peanut butter cookies are problematic for location 5 only if the criterion is that a cookie type should represent 10 percent of total sales for a single store location.

Following a few commonsense rules will aid you in the design of effective graphics. Choose themes and slide design to match the subject or occasion and use complimentary background and foreground colors. Be sure that red, blue, and green colors do not touch each other because color-blind people cannot see differences between the colors. Limit the number of visuals in your presentation with only one idea per slide and limit each slide to one idea. Make sure text labels in graphics are large enough to be easily read by the audience.

Be aware that graphics can be used for unethical purposes. Graphics can be used to support a lie or to stretch the truth. It is important when making graphics to be sure that the proportions are correct. The “three-quarter high” is a rule-of-thumb stating that the emphasis of any graph should be on the x-axis—horizontal axis (width), thus, the y-axis—vertical (height) of the graph should be three-fourths the length of the x-axis. Ensure that the axes, bars, and pies are all labeled completely to provide the audience a full understanding of the graphic without a verbal explanation. It is also always important to explain in words exactly what the graphic shows, unless it is easily apparent. The graphic should be sandwiched between the introduction of the graphic and the explanation of the graphic.

Summary

In effective oral presentations, the presenter selects and accomplishes the intended purpose. Second, effective oral presentation requires adequate preparation. Third, effective oral presentation incorporates good vocal and bodily delivery. Possible objectives for a presentation include belief, action, narrative, descriptive, explanation, and gratification.

The general styles for presentation delivery are memory, manuscript (read), impromptu, and extemporaneous. The elevator presentation is a special type of extemporaneous presentation that is short and to the point. Practicing your presentation, regardless of delivery style, is fundamental to success.

The introduction, body, and conclusion are the three main portions of a presentation. The introduction’s function is to tell them what you will tell them, the body’s function is to tell them, and the conclusion’s function is to tell them what you just told them.

A filled pause is any overused, meaningless sound or phrase that results when a nervous speaker tries to fill the silent void. Effective speakers recognize their own filler tendencies and overcome the habit by pausing for emphasis or audience deliberation. Be aware of verbal techniques such as hyperbole often used to influence you emotionally, especially when the media is reporting on information of a sensational nature.

Emotions are feelings that the presentation elicits from both you as the presenter and your audience. Humdrum speakers elicit boredom and irritability from their audiences. Sincerity is perceived by the audience as an honest attempt to connect and achieve your speaking purpose. Studying the patterns of speech of great presentations can be helpful in learning how to inspire and change peoples’ points of view. Various types of charts and graphs are visual aids to help convey meaning and clarity for your presentation message.