CHAPTER 2

Impression Management

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

1. delineate the nuances of impression management theory;
2. describe the specifics of nonverbal impression management;
3. explain how your dress, behavior, and personal environment influence impressions;
4. explain how you can use impression management to manage others.

Introduction

Those selfies you take may give strangers odd impressions of you. Most people under the age of 30 and many over that take selfies. However, these people are seen by strangers as more negative, less trustworthy, less socially attractive, less open to new experiences, more narcissistic, and more extroverted than the same person in photos taken by others, either alone or in a group. People are seen as more attractive when they are in photos with others (Kramer et al. 2017). Though you cannot control or predict the impression that you make through selfies, you are, nevertheless, making an impression. You must be careful of what you put online that others can see, whether you are at work or even on your personal time.

Celebrities manage the impressions they portray by what they purchase, what they wear, what they do to their bodies, and how they present themselves to the public. Some celebrities’ attempts at self-presentation can be ridiculous. Guyism.com listed the top 10 ridiculous celebrity purchases, ranging from an $850 purse for Suri Cruise (just a child), Michael Vick’s $85,000 fish pond, Beyonce’s $100,000 pair of leggings, to Rachel Hunter’s $15,000 doghouse (Guyism 2013). Although these purchases may seem extreme for ordinary people, celebrities know that the right kind of image portrayed to the public can be lucrative and make them appear irresistible.

Another example of this obsession with celebrity image is the $32,000 appearance fee paid to Snooki from Jersey Shore by Rutgers University, which was $2,000 more than the amount Rutgers paid famed Nobel Laureate, Toni Morrison, for an appearance (Larkin 2017)! Even though outrage followed Snooki’s visit, why do you suppose the Rutgers University Programming Association was willing to pay Snooki that kind of fee? Why do we know about Suri Cruise’s purse in the first place? Is it accidental or deliberate that we know these seemingly unimportant facts? Why do we care about Beyonce’s leggings? Why do ordinary people live beyond their means, drive cars they cannot afford, purchase homes out of their price range, or adorn their bodies with expensive suits they do not truly like?

In his seminal analysis, Goffman (1959) captured the essence of what celebrities and common people are trying to achieve through their attempts at being noticed. Goffman described what people do in public as akin to a theatrical performance. Individuals act on a daily basis in a manner that will create a desirable public image among their peers. Individuals in everyday life use expressive personal items to enhance their persona. Goffman also believed that when individuals are outside the public’s view, on a hypothetical backstage, they can be themselves and shed their public personas.

Managers, too, use impressionistic behavior to enhance the effectiveness of their leadership. If an upper-management person breaks a social contract with an employee, the trust the person had created will be destroyed and the employee will become very cynical (James and Shaw 2016). There are a variety of impression management qualities (verbal and nonverbal, dress, environment, and so on) within the broader framework of managerial communication. The impression you make every day at work affects your credibility with those above, equal to, and below you in the organization. An impression is very difficult to change and that is why first impressions are important. While we typically form an impression of someone in less than a minute, it could take years to change that first impression.

Impression Management Theory

Some people in the corporate world deliberately try to cause others to see them in a particular way through staging or acting (Goffman 1959); however, everyone leaves an impression on others even if not intentionally. Impression management is concerned with the organization’s or individual’s attempt to influence the impression that others have of them (Nelson and Quick 2003). Impression management can include both verbal and nonverbal behaviors as well as physical appearance. Symbolic interactionism theories explain that individuals select and create their friendships and social activity environments to reinforce who they are—dispositions, preferences, attitudes, and self-image (Buss 1987; Snyder and Ickes 1985; Swann 1987). People decorate their personal and work spaces to fit their personal tastes. The personal materials are a direct reflection of the individual’s personality and give the area a sense of identity. People base impressions on one’s physical appearance such as skin tone, age, and hair; or on social roles such as professional, blue collar, or retired; and on their personal biases.

Research has shown that impression management is pervasive throughout organizations, and that there are risks and rewards of using the technique. Window into Practical Reality 2.1 illustrates the impression management experiences of two organizations, one which resulted in a positive response from the public and the other the opposite.

Assertive Strategies

A manager’s use of assertive strategies can lead to images that are either desirable or undesirable. Five assertive strategies include (1) ingratiation, (2) self-promotion, (3) exemplification, (4) supplication, and (5) intimidation. Figure 2.1 illustrates the assertive strategies, associated behaviors, and their desired or undesired image outcomes.

An ingratiating person is one who frequently compliments people without any real reason for doing so. Ingratiation as a strategy may be effective at times. For example, it has been found to positively influence performance evaluations and individual likeability (Kacmar and Carlson 1999; Seiter 2007), though effectiveness is influenced by the type of ingratiation tactic used, its transparency, and with whom it is used (Gordon 1996). Ingratiation is risky because it is so transparent, and for it to work effectively it must be subtle and not obvious. If the person it is being used on becomes suspicious, he or she will not believe the ingratiator (Potter 2014).

Self-promotion includes boasting about one’s work in an attempt to positively impact others. When an organization engages in self-promotion, it normally does this in the form of what marketers call “puffery,” that is the best burger in town, or you will never have a better night’s sleep. However, you will want to be careful with boasts and not exaggerate; otherwise, others will tend to disregard your claims.

Because exemplification can be seen as going beyond what is required in one’s job, it can be seen as positive by some, while others may view it as hypocritical and self-serving. People tend not to like those who have a superiority complex. When used properly by a manager, exemplification can be viewed by employees as indicating that the person is a worthy role model and an effective leader, who is a transformational force in the organization.

Using supplication as an impression management tool occurs when the user indicates that someone else is more qualified for a task or assignment. Most people enjoy having others look up to them, so this technique often works to the supplicant’s advantage to get the resources he or she needs. However, it can also make the supplicant appear unqualified, which means that while it may be effective short term, it can be quite ineffective in the long run.

The use of intimidation is most often utilized in nonvoluntary or contractual relationships. The intimidator has the ability to inflict hardship on the recipient, such as in the military. The strategy can be effective when immediate action is necessary; however, in most organizations it leads to fear and distrust among recipients. Window into Practical Reality 2.2 illustrates the risks involved with the use of intimidation.

Defensive Strategies

Managers can use defensive strategies in their impression management that can lead to both desirable and undesirable image outcomes. Five common defensive strategies include (1) innocence, (2) excuses, (3) justifications, (4) apologies, and (5) accounts (Gardner 1992; Gardner and Martinko 1988; Jones and Pittman 1982). Figure 2.2 illustrates these defensive strategies and their associated behaviors and desired or undesired image outcomes.

Innocence, excuses, and justification all involve face-saving and an attempt to repair the image of the user; however, many times the receiver sees the person as a liar, deceitful, or incompetent. With the use of innocence (also called denial or refusal) the user denies responsibility, denies that the event occurred, blames others, or says that the blame cannot be apportioned.

The individual using an excuse tries to reduce responsibility by providing evidence that mitigates his or her responsibility for the actions that caused the situation.

Justification by the person responsible for the situation is an attempt to reduce the undesirability of the situation. In other words, the person accepts responsibility but denies the need for punishment. Window into Practical Reality 2.3 illustrates an example of ingratiation that went wrong for Paula Dean. Her justification that the incident happened a long time ago was seen as suspicious, and the media bias also did not help. Nevertheless, what happened to Paula Dean is a reflection of the images and expectations among the different race demographics in America.

By using the defensive strategy of an apology (also called a concession), the user wants others to see him or her as acting out of character with what happened, though the user agrees that what happened was wrong. In some cases, the person will also offer compensation. Recipients often view such actions as insincere, especially if the user chose to lie about the situation in the first place.

Representative Anthony Weiner’s apology strategy illustrates a liar’s paradox as explained in the Window into Practical Reality 2.4.

Accounts include questionable actions or situations based upon the report of a particular person. The believability of such accounts depends upon the credibility of the account giver and the perceived degree to which the content of the account is true. The most important components are the content and the story being told, depending upon the circumstances. The more truthful, reasonable, and normal people are perceived to be, the more likely their content quality will be seen as positive; however, the less truthful, reasonable, and normal the individuals, the more likely their content quality will be interpreted negatively.

Managers’ views are shaped by experience, norms, and social protocol in a given situation. If a chosen strategy conflicts or deviates from the manager’s view, the effectiveness of the strategy will be diminished. Strategies must be selected based on audience and the context of the situation.

Nonverbal Impression Management

People clearly develop impressions of others from the nonverbal cues they perceive. Despite advancing technology, many cultures in the world still prefer to develop face-to-face business relationships rather than relying on electronic solutions. When you are face-to-face with someone for the first time, within one-tenth of a second the other person is judging your attractiveness, likability, trustworthiness, competence, and aggressiveness, among other things. Technology can facilitate similar connections among individuals. For example, videoconferencing can allow a similar judgment to be made about attractiveness, likability, and other characteristics. Because of the constant sizing-up that occurs from first impressions, introductions can be threatening, whether occurring face-to-face or virtually.

You can do many things to ease the fear and discomfort. Having a positive frame of mind is essential. Before an encounter, do something to relax such as taking a few deep breaths. Study the nonverbal elements of the presentation situation. For example, if you are not sure how much space to give the other party, give more than you think is adequate. In the United States, one full arm’s length generally works well. The initiation of eye contact is crucial, because maintaining eye contact generally communicates sincerity and honesty. In some cultures, however, the rules for eye contact differ, especially when involving a male and a female or people of different ages. However, eye contact does not mean the same thing as staring which can be interpreted as somewhat offensive even among those who expect strong eye-to-eye contact. Speaking in a low tone of voice and controlling your movements is also important. Always remember, there is only one chance to make a first impression (Reiman 2008).

Self-confidence and empathy are associated with control; therefore, talking and moving less generally makes a better first impression. There are certain postures that may hold meaning for some people but trying to interpret what someone is saying through these positions may not always be reliable. You will need to learn an individual’s nonverbals to be sure that you are interpreting unspoken messages correctly. Strong first impressions take place when the message and the nonverbals align, and when they are both believable. In situations where the two do not align or are not believed, our reaction is often that we could not read the person or that there was something unsettling about him or her. Window into Practical Reality 2.5 reveals the consequence of an unintended gesture.

Nonverbal impressions are very strong during the job interview process. Both the decision of the interviewer to make a job offer and the decision of the candidate to accept are largely based on the impressions that were formed by the initial interview. The behaviors of both parties will include the use of eye contact, facial expression, posture, interpersonal distance, and body orientation. When the interviewer and candidate hit it off during the interview, a positive connection has occurred between the two people that can carry into future exchanges.

Impressions Conveyed by Dress and Behaviors

It is amazing the amount of money that college students spend on preparation for the GMAT, GRE, or LSAT and how little is spent on preparing to get a job after college. Even when career coaching is offered, very few college students take advantage of it. One firm dismissed a college applicant for wearing flip-flops to the interview, and another applicant was dismissed when he was asked why he wanted to work in the field and he responded, “It beats flipping burgers.” While business norms are shifting, being a serious job candidate is still necessary. Appropriate attire and behavior speak volumes about you and influence the impression you make on others.

If you have not recently listened to yourself or observed your mannerisms on video, record and analyze yourself. Is what you are seeing what you thought you were doing? How would you react to you? How do you think others will react? During that first impression are others seeing you as knowledgeable, flexible, enthusiastic, and sincere? Even if grooming is not important to you, it may be to others as a sign of your professionalism as well as attention to detail. If you want others to feel confident in your abilities, you must establish eye contact while shaking hands. A posture that is animated but relaxed will appear inviting to the other person. If the position requires authoritative dress, then you need to dress the part.

In one study, subjects were video recorded, and the recordings were assessed by trained decoders for likeability, effectiveness in speaking, expressivity, and confidence. Male subjects who were nonverbally skilled and extroverted and displayed outwardly focused and fluid, expressive behaviors were more favorably received than were those lacking those characteristics. Females who displayed more facial expressiveness made better impressions. A conclusion of the research is that behaviors that make a favorable impression can differ for males and females (Riggio and Friedman 1986).

Impressions Conveyed by the Office Environment

Office design is a form of object language. Personality revealed in the way one arranges and accessorizes his or her office can say a lot to others implicitly. People may initially decide if you are extroverted, conscientious, and open just by looking at your office. A desk against the wall forms a more open arrangement, and the occupant is seen as friendlier and more extroverted then those offices with a closed-desk arrangement. One study looked at the effect of wood furniture and wood floors and found that people perceive offices with wood floors and wood desks and furniture to be warmer and the people who occupy them to be more successful (Ridoutt, Ball, and Killerby 2002).

Research has also indicated that observers’ perceptions of office holders whose stacks are organized were more favorable than those with very messy or very clean offices. A recent study found that the portability of the technology the office holder has contributes to the office holder being seen as more extroverted and open to new possibilities (Scheibe, McElroy, and Morrow 2009). Customers also base their image of a company not only on how employees treat them but on their perceptions of the employee’s appearance and behavior. For example, Best Buy has their Geek Squad members drive a cute Volkswagen Bug when visiting clients.

Using Your Impressions to Manage Others

Now that we have covered the nuances of impression management, let’s examine how you can use these nuances to influence the impressions others will have of you. Self-monitoring is being able to control your own cues and read the cues of others. Some researchers consider this part of an individual’s personality. Males and females are frequently taught that certain expressive behaviors are okay for one gender but not for the other. Research has also shown that in initial interactions, physically attractive people are judged more favorably than those seen as less attractive.

During negotiation situations, if you make a favorable impression and are seen as cooperative, you maintain your ability to use that impression to influence the other negotiators. However, if during the negotiations you change from cooperative to competitive, the others’ impression of you may become increasingly negative. The impression of the other negotiator changes less, though, when they start with a positive impression of you.

Managers must be able to identify honest and manipulative impression management strategies and determine their appropriate use. Organizations and managers must work together to reduce and discourage undesirable strategies, and employees must be conscious of the images they are projecting and understand the audience as well as the situation. It is easy for managers to have a deluded view of their own leadership abilities (self-deception). When in a leadership position, a manager often will exaggerate personal strengths and deny common faults in order to project a positive self-image. The more their employees buy into the manager’s position, the more they will believe that their manager is a good leader. In order to be viewed as a positive leader, the leader must impress employees with promises and actions that are seen as successful by the employees. Therefore, managers strive to use a combination of impression management and interpretation of follower expectations to become charismatic leaders.

Managers in every organization reflect and influence the corporate culture on a daily basis. They cannot just use e-mail and texts to communicate values but must interact and have a physical presence with their employees. While internal publications and electronic communications can effectively distribute information, nothing replaces a charismatic, caring manager in making employees feel important to the company.

Summary

The acts that people perform in their daily lives can be compared to theatrical performances in which actors perform in front of an audience on a hypothetical stage. The acting is designed to elicit a desired positive self-image. When not in public view, people can get rid of their personas and be themselves. Impressions are made and solidified continually, either on purpose or by accident. Some people try to direct how others perceive them by using impression management. Impression management involves various elements, including verbal and nonverbal effects, dress and behavior, personal environments, physical appearance, and social roles. Assertive impression management strategies include ingratiation, self-promotion, exemplification, supplication, and intimidation. Defensive impression management strategies include innocence, excuses, accounts, justifications, and apologies.

Your verbal and nonverbal behaviors lead people to decide if you are being truthful or untruthful, sincere or manipulative. Eye contact and posture carry strong messages about your motives and intents, though cultural expectations differ about these elements. Male and female behaviors and expectations for dress are often viewed differently, and members of a society have preconceived notions of how each gender should interact and communicate in the work environment. Office environments and other work environment details impress people either negatively or positively. People make judgments about their superiors based on such nonverbal characteristics, and customers judge organizations on such factors as well. Managing the impressions you make on others can help you to successfully impress your superiors and subordinates, and influence your firm’s clients and customers.