law of effectiveness, 349
Mach number effect, 280f
NACA airfoils, 267
sweep angle
on stall characteristics, 318
on structural loads, 318
wind-tunnel model, 451
Pitching moment
aerodynamic center, 104
airfoil at angles-of-attack, 256
airfoil’s pitching moments, 121–122
airfoils, 104
combinations, 378f
impact of ground effect on, 352f
Mach number effect on, 280f
modeling for simple wing-HT system, 466
NACA series airfoils, 268f
short-bubble leading edge stall, 252
stall effect types on, 123f
swept-back and straight wing configurations, 498f
wing partition method, 437–438
Pitching moment coefficient
compressibility effects, 278–280
estimation, 439–441
impact on longitudinal trim, 289
magnitude, 256
NACA five-digit airfoils, 261
three-dimensional objects, 239
aerodynamic properties, 419–420
ailerons, 951
differential ailerons, 952
drawbacks, 418
flap area, 418
general design guidelines, 418–419
polynomial representations, 726t
single-slotted flap, 425
streamlines, 418f
Planar
elliptic planar wing, 450
motion equations for airplane, 823
solution, 849
steady motion, 849
PMA, See Parts manufacturer approval
Polyhedral wing, 452
comparison, 454f
Glaser-Dirks DG-1000 sailplane features, 453f
non-planar wings, 453
using potential flow theory, 453
pros and cons, 453t
sailplanes, 453
straight-wing design, 453
Polyhedral wingtip, See Polyhedral wing
Post-development program phase, 11
Potential energy (PE), 184t
power plant, 40–41
zooming, 891
Power
airspeed effect on engine, 192
basics, 184t
in BHP, 61f
BHP, 185
correlation, 145f
EHP, 185
GA and experimental aircraft, 191t
modern computer, 57
normalization, 59–61
noticeable power effects, 89–90
number of blades effect on, 615–618
optimum design points, 58
piston engine, 190
plant expert, 9
power-related coefficients, 614–615
propulsive or thrust, 595
for same-displacement engine, 190
SHP, 185
temperature effect on Engine, 195
THP, 185–186
three halves power law, 524
Prandtl’s lifting line theory, 379–380
Biot-Savart law, 380–381
Helmholz’s vortex theorems, 381
lifting line formulation, 381–384
vortex filament law, 380–381
Preliminary design, 10
detail design phase, 10
development program phase, 11
hypothetical conceptual design, 20f
selection of tire sizes, 555
Torenbeek’s diagram, 13
weight tolerancing, 174
Pressure
aerodynamic loads, 98
center of, 243–244
contemporary types, 557t
in cylinders, 193
dynamic
actual distribution, 330
conversion, 213
pitot tube or pitot, 769
stalling speed expression, 66
force, 237
geometry, 444
gradient, 368
high compressor, 197
inflation, 555
lag error, 769
molding, 100
numbering system, 267
piston engines, 183
slipstream effects, 597–598
static port, 79–80
static source, 769
tires and tire inflation, 549
vessels, 129–130
Pressure altitude, 6
example, 219b
in ft, 990
hydrostatic equilibrium equations, 764
pressure or density ratios, 765
Pressure coefficient, 241
canonical, 241–242
compressibility modeling, 280–281
correction of lift, 654
Pressure distribution
chordwise, 242
conventional lift distribution, 242–243
using pressure coefficient, 242
stratford distribution, 243
difference in chordwise, 677f
drag coefficient, 674–675
equation, 674–675
properties, 242f
Pressure drag
AOA or AOY changes, 666
CDo and CDf, 668
drag modeling, 666
drag of subsonic aircraft, 666
flow separation, 367
form factor, 666
generated by object, 732
Reynolds number, 981
Pressure recovery, 226
in airplane piston engine cowling inlets, 217
airspeed effect on engine power, 192
AOA and AOY, 223–224
diffuser inlet, 224
at front face of compressor, 91
scoop-type inlets for, 213
Pressure-tube
reasonable accuracy, 536
Pressurization
for an aircraft, 9
characteristics, 10
correction factors, 36
special considerations, 129–131
Pressurized fuselage, 97–98
Product of inertia
inertia properties, 161t
parallel-axis theorem, 167
symmetry of object, 166
system of discrete point loads, 168
PROFILE software, 255–256
Project cost
analysis, 37t
comparison, 43t
Project management, 19
communication skills, 19
engineering project, 19
Gantt diagrams, 19
house of quality, 21–27
managing compliance, 21
project plan and task management, 21
quality function deployment, 21–27
scheduled deadlines, 19
time management, 19
Proof-of-concept aircraft, 11
blade element theory, 640
compressibility corrections, 654–655
computer code, 656
determination, 650–654
formulation, 641–650
Prandtl’s tip and hub loss corrections, 655–656
blade-element theory, 583
configurations, 584–586
constant-speed, 42
cost of power plant, 41–43
determination, 620
analytical methods, 632
constant-speed propellers, cubic spline method for, 628–630
converting piston BHP to thrust, 620–621
estimating thrust from manufacturer’s data, 631–632
fixed-pitch propellers, cubic spline method for, 623–624
propeller thrust at low airspeeds, 621–630
quadratic interpolation method, 621
step-by-step, 630–631
fixed vs. constant-speed propellers, 594–595
and gas turbines, 185
geometric propeller pitch, 588–589
constant-pitch propeller, 590
determination, 592
fundamental formulation, 589–590
pitch angle or geometric pitch, 590
propeller rotation relationships, 591
variable-pitch propeller, 590–591
geometry, 587–588
ground clearance, 549
McDonnell XF-88B, 582–583
nomenclature, 586–587
normal force, 469–470
propeller effects, 595–596
angular momentum and gyroscopic effects, 596–597
asymmetric yaw effect, 599
blockage effects, 602–604
constant-speed propeller, 595f
effects of high tip speed, 605
hub and tip effects, 604–605
propeller noise, 606–607
propeller normal and side force, 598–599
skewed wake effects, 605–606
slipstream effects, 597–598
twin-engine aircraft, 599–602
properties and selection, 607
activity factor, 613–614
advance ratio, 611–613
effect of number of blades on power, 615–618
moment of inertia of the propeller, 619–620
power-and thrust-related coefficients, 614–615
prop diameter estimation, 608–609
propeller efficiency estimation, 610–611
propeller pitch estimation, 610
propulsive efficiency, 618–619
tips for selecting suitable propeller, 607–608
propulsive or thrust power, 595
pros and cons of, 585t
Rankine-Froude momentum theory
computer code, 638–640
flow properties inside control volume, 634f
formulation, 633–635
ideal efficiency, 635
idealized flow model for, 633f
maximum static thrust, 636–638
propeller-induced velocity, 632–633
rotating, 90
series hybrid, 206
single piston-engine propeller airplane, 64b
thrust for, 572
tractor configuration, 89
Tupolev Tu-114 passenger aircraft, 583f
turboprop, 196
windmilling propellers, 593–594
Propeller A·q loads, 605–606
Propeller asymmetric thrust effect
airplane operating with, 476
characteristics, 480
moment, 600
OEI, 643
rotation axis, 599–600
Propeller blade, 582
forces, angles and velocity for, 642f
geometry of metal, 588f
rotating at static conditions, 592f
section lift coefficients for, 604f
spanwise flow, 641
Propeller diameter
cubic spline method, 623
in ft or meters, 609
number of blades, 615–616
Propeller disc
blockage effects, 602–603
designer, 590–591
normal force, 598
preliminaries, 638
Propeller efficiency, 47
airspeed-power map, 613f
computer code, 638–640
estimation, 610–611
example, 626b
fixed-pitch climb propeller, 594
graph for fixed-pitch propeller, 632f
high tip speed, 605
on spline, 629f
step-by-step, 626b
variation, 649f
Propeller induced airspeed, 638
Propeller normal force effect, 598
Propeller number of blades
effect on power, 615–618
engine characteristics, 607–608
Propeller propulsive efficiency
conversion process, 618
Froude efficiency, 618
propeller efficiency, 618
propeller efficiency map, 618–619
Propeller side force effect, 598–599
Propeller thrust, 47
CG of engine, 211
determination, 620
analytical methods, 632
constant-speed propellers, cubic spline method for, 628–630
converting piston BHP to thrust, 620–621
estimating thrust from manufacturer’s data, 631–632
fixed-pitch propellers, cubic spline method for, 623–624
propeller thrust at low airspeeds, 621–630
quadratic interpolation method, 621
step-by-step, 630–631
at low airspeeds, 605
momentum theory, 632
tractor propeller configuration, 91
Propeller tip effect, 583
Ground Clearance, 549
SHP, 185
Propeller tip speed, 612b
Propwash
advantage, 483
blocked and unblocked, 603f
Froude efficiency, 618
tractor configuration, 89
VT surfaces, 494
Pulsejet engine, 182
electric motors, 182
THP, 185–186
Pure electric aircraft, 206
Pusher propeller, 89
drawbacks, 91
propeller structure, 585–586
pros and cons, 585t
Q
Quality control
flight test operations, 45
total cost of, 40
Quantity discount, 36
Quantity discount factor (QDF), 36
experience effectiveness adjustment factor, 36
R
Raked wingtip, 446
Boeing 777 commercial transport aircraft, 447f
effectiveness, 446–448
geometry, 447f
Hoerner wing tip, 447f
lift-induced drag, 447f
positive and negative sweep rakes, 446
Rakelet, 448
Ramp weight, 135
Range, 896
airspeed for Jet, 875
best range airspeed for, 876–877
Carson’s airspeed, 877
comparison to best glide speed, 877
requirement for maximum range, 875–876
AR values, 309t
Breguet endurance equation, 898
Breguet range equation, 897
cruise segment for, 896
determining fuel required for mission, 907–908
endurance analysis, 897–898
inflation pressures for aircraft, 557t
range analysis, 899
mission profiles, 899
physical and mathematical interpretation, 899t
range profile 1, 899–900
range profile 2, 901–902
range profile 3, 902
range profile 4, 903–904
sensitivity studies, 908
aspect ratio sensitivity, 909
drag sensitivity, 909
empty weight sensitivity, 909
SFC and TSFC, 898–899
specific range
Brequet flight profile, 910–911
CAFE foundation challenge, 910
Cirrus SR22 general aviation aircraft, 911f
efficiency, 910
fuel quantity, 909
instantaneous, 909–910
quadratic model, 672
range and endurance, 9
subsonic minimum drag coefficients, 752
vs. weight, 896–897
Range efficiency, 349–350
Range performance, 343
Range Profile 1
constant airspeed/attitude cruise, 907
constant airspeed/constant attitude cruise, 899–900
Range Profile 2, 901–902
Range Profile 3
constant airspeed/attitude cruise, 908
constant airspeed/constant attitude cruise, 902
Range requirements, 921
Range sensitivity, 908
aspect ratio sensitivity, 909
drag sensitivity, 909
empty weight sensitivity, 909
payload-range sensitivity study, 919–921
Rankine-Froude momentum theory, 632
computer code
ideal and viscous profile, 638
Plan Next Step, 638–640
Preliminaries, 638
propeller efficiency, 638
Set Initial Values, 638
flow properties, 634f
formulation, 633–635
ideal efficiency, 635
idealized flow model for, 633f
maximum static thrust, 636–638
propeller-induced velocity, 632–633
Rapid pattern recognition, 2
Rate-of-climb (ROC), 824–825
airplane, 59
airspeeds, 773t–774t
climb gradient, 825
in OEI configuration, 600–601
performance handbooks, 749
for propeller-powered airplane, 834
Rate-of-descent
aircraft reduces altitude, 927
in airplanes, 562
derivation of equation, 927
Reference altitude
atmospheric conditions, 765
temperature constants, 764t
Reference area, 302
airplane’s design, 302
for Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, 302f
drag of tires, 718t
EFPA, 668
reference geometry, 499
T-O configuration, 800
Reference speed, 773t–774t
Reference temperature, 764t
Regulations, 7
aircraft classes certification, 3t
center of gravity envelope, 168
GA aircraft, 4
Klegecell®, 111
modern-day, 838–839
safety in commercial aviation, 6–7
spin, 482
standards, 13
V-n diagram, 775
vertical gusts, 779f
Regulatory concepts, 13
advisory circular, 15
airworthiness directives, 14
CAR, CAA, FAA and EASA, 13
harmonization, 13
maintenance requirements, 14
parts manufacturer approval, 15
service bulletin, 15
special airworthiness certificate, 14
standard airworthiness certificate, 14
supplemental type certificate, 14
technical standard order, 15
authorization, 15
type certificate, 13–14
Requirements for static stability, 464
Requirements phase, 10
Resin
composites, 6
fibers, 111
fibrous composites, 108
pre-preg, 114
properties, 115t
purpose, 112
RTM, 111
thermoplastics, 113
thermosets, 112–113
Responsiveness
aileron design requirements, 952
control surface sizing, 948
control systems, 969
maximizing, 962
stubby planform, 309–310
Retractable
approach requirement, 968
nacelles, 91
take-off requirement, 967–968
wing structure, 120
Retractable landing gear
advent of, 553–554
aluminum Mooney Ovation, 119
approach requirement, 968
benefit of, 554
cost per airplane, 41
fads in aircraft design, 79t
internal volume, 554–555
kinematics, 554
retraction and extension, 554
stick diagrams, 555
take-off requirement, 967–968
Reversing propeller, 586
aerodynamic properties, 406
change in skin friction coefficient with, 678f
critical, 733
determination, 680
form factors at subcritical, 702
form factors at supercritical, 703
linear range, 240
using Owen’s criterion, 252
SI system, 247
turbulent boundary layer, 248
Ribs
joining, 102
leading edge rib, 123
parallel, 123
plywood, 118
structural member, 121–122
stub ribs, 123
swept-back wings, 122–123
in trailing edge, 264–265
Rivet
blind-riveting, 102
bucking-bar, 102
head types, 102–103
stability, 676
standard procedure, 102f
ROC, See Rate-of-climb
Rocket engine, 182
Roll control, 437
aileron authority derivative, 953
aileron design requirements, 952
ailerons purpose, 949–950
differential ailerons, 952
elevon, 952
flaperon, 437
flaperon, 952
frise ailerons, 951
plain flap ailerons, 951
roll damping derivative, 955–956
slot-lip ailerons, 951–952
spoiler-flap ailerons, 951
Roll damping, 468
aileron sizing, 960
derivative, 475–476
Dutch, 494
estimation, 960
Roll stability at stall
aerodynamic washout, 319
configuration, 333
forward-swept planform, 337
Rolling
airplanes, 413–414
approach requirement, 968
cold, 107
Rolling moment, 87
calculation, 955
Rolling moment coefficient, 953
calculation, 956
roll damping coefficient, 956
Roofed-cabin, 88
Root chord, 303
quarter-chord line, 303–304
straight tapered wing planform, 334
wing, 308
wing planform, 41
Rotation, 813
distance, 49
double-subscripts, 166
mass moment of inertia, 165
plain flap, 417–418
propeller geometry, 587
propeller relationships, 591
single-slotted fowler flap, 430–431
zap flap, 420–422
inverted V-tail configuration, 493
operation, 303
pros and cons, 585t
take-off rotation capability, 495
Rotation airspeed, 575f
Rudder, 475
airplanes feature plain flaps for, 418
endplates, 448
functionality, 127–128
severity, 480
stability and control theory, 460
standard practice, 601f
vertical ventral fin, 493
Rudder authority
for aircraft, 964
low directional stability, 964
V-tail, 493
Y-tail, 493
Rudder deflection, 460
clockwise propeller rotation, 599–600
RPM, 599
standard practice, 601f
Rudder pedal
control system interaction, 492–493
pilots, 600
side-slip airplane on, 491
steering, 553
Rutan VariEze, 114
canard configuration, 496
Whitcomb winglet, 450–451
wing layout properties, 320t–322t
S
SAC, See Special airworthiness certificate
Sailplane
AR values for, 309t
certification, 3t
cruise flaps, 284
dihedral configurations, 87
empirical formulation, 315
high-aspect-ratio wings, 349
monowheel with outriggers, 92
properties, 83t
spoilers, 285–286
T/W for, 185t
wing layout properties, 320t–322t
Sailplane operation
GA aircraft, 539–540
maximum lift-to-drag ratio, 316f
Sailplanes regulations
culver twist formula, 324
using quadratic spline method, 741
Schuemann wing, 339–340
Sandwich construction, 119–120
SB, See Service bulletin
Schuemann planform, 339–340
Seaplane
and amphibians, 968
noticeable power effects, 89–90
Seaplane hull, 549
Seaplane operation, 91
Section lift coefficient, 239
aerodynamic washout, 319
angle-of-attack at zero lift, 240
comparison of fractional, 332f
compound tapered wing planform, 335
compressibility, 279
endplate wingtip, 448
hub and tip effects, 604–605
lift coefficient of minimum drag, 241
lift curve slope, 239–240
linear range, 240
maximum and minimum lift coefficients, 239
minimum drag coefficient, 241
for propeller blade, 604f
vortex-lattice model, 967f
Section lift coefficient distribution
aerodynamic washout, 319
with and without endplates, 449f
CFD methods, 369
constant-chord wing, 315–316
elliptical planform, 333f
geometry and lifting characteristics, 341f
pros, 334
spanwise, 688f
cause roll instability, 437
for full span flaps, 438f
for partial span flaps, 437f
taper ratio effect on, 316f
Semi-tapered planform, 339
Sensitivity
climb maneuver, 840
calibrated airspeeds, 840
propeller efficiency, 841
spreadsheet, 840f
landing distance sensitivity studies, 942
low-power, 602
NLF wings, 379
payload-range sensitivity study, 919–921
performance, 5
propeller efficiency, 842
range sensitivity studies, 908
aspect ratio sensitivity, 909
drag sensitivity, 909
empty weight sensitivity, 909
take-off sensitivity studies, 816–817
weight, 842
Separated boundary layer, 665
Separated flow, 223
configurations, 482
flow field, 497
rudder sizing, 964
streamlines, 249
Service bulletin (SB), 15
Service Bulletin, 15
Service ceiling, 838–839
business jets, 839–840
T/W for, 59
SFC, See Specific fuel consumption
Shaft horsepower (SHP), 185
Shear web, 84
aft, 121–122
main spar, 120–121
structural member, 122
stub rib, 123
Sheet metal forming, 100–101
SHP, See Shaft horsepower
Side force, 598–599
inflation pressure, 555
jet engine pylons, 977
span efficiency, 363
for tractor configuration, 599f
V-tail slope, 493
winglet, 448–449
Simple Krüger flap leading edge, 409
in action, 410f
aerodynamic properties, 411
folding, bull-nose Krüger flap, 411
Simple surface flex, 100–101
Single slotted flap, 425
aerodynamic properties, 426
general design guidelines, 426
leading edge devices, 425
special lift-enhancing tab, 980
trailing-edge high-lift devices, 425–426
translation, 430–431
versions, 425
Sink rate, 930
Skin
curvatures, 100
friction, 655
analysis methods, 685t
coefficients calculation, 707f
multi-panel wing, 686t
fuselage, 128
joining, 102
plywood, 118
sheet metal for, 374
stringers, 124
weight, 123
wing, 978
Skin friction drag, 664
CDBM, 708
computation, 681
force for complete wing, 683
Frankl-Voishel correction for, 280–281
miscellaneous or additive drag, 698–700
separation and flat roof, 243
using surface wetted area, 681
Skin friction drag coefficient, 675
boundary layer stability, 676
calculation, 680–686
by fluid’s viscosity, 675
laminar boundary layer, 676
maximum thickness, 676–678
natural laminar flow airfoil, 675
standard formulation to estimate, 678–679
streamlined three-dimensional shape, 676
transition, 676f
Slipstream, 597–598
Slot-lip
cruise and climb performance, 952
NACA TN-5475 and NACA R-6026, 951
Slotted flap
cruise flaps, 285
double-slotted flaps, 427–428
difference, 428
general design guidelines, 430
on pitching moment, 378f
polynomial representations, 726t
reference geometry schematics, 434f
aerodynamic properties, 426
general design guidelines, 426
plain flaps, 425
trailing-edge high-lift devices, 425–426
versions, 425
Smeaton lift equation, 239
Solid modeling
components, 147
standard three-view drawing, 29f
Spar
carry-through for small GA aircraft, 30f
composite aircraft, 119–120
cross sections for GA aircraft, 121f
light aircraft, 126
low wing structure, 84
low-wing aircraft, 523
main, 120–121
spar-rib-stringers-skin, 301
Spar cap
extrusion, 101
main spar cross sections, 121
Special airworthiness certificate (SAC), 14
Special Airworthiness Type Certificate, 14
Specific fuel consumption (SFC), 188
aspirated piston engines for aircraft, 192t
conventional piston and jet engines, 188
engines, 188
fuel flow, 188–189
for Jets, 189
for Pistons, 189
propeller aircraft, 912
T-O power and, 197t
thrust specific, 898
in UK system, 898
Specific range (SR), 909
CAFE foundation challenge, 910
Brequet flight profile, 910–911
Cirrus SR22 general aviation aircraft, 911f
efficiency, 910
fuel quantity, 909
instantaneous, 909–910
quadratic model, 672
range and endurance, 9
Speed of sound, 770
on airfoil, 273
airplanes, 682
airspeeds, 48
drag coefficient, 695
and mach number, 991
Speed Stability, 855–856
Speed-to-Fly, 877
Spin recovery
OEI asymmetric thrust, 964
potential solution to, 483f
stability and control analysis, 461
T-tail aircraft post-stall at, 487f
tail design and, 482–483
wing droops, 978
Spinner, 587
empirical correction, 636–638
piston-engine aircraft, 603–604
Split flap, 420
aerodynamic properties, 422–423
design guidelines, 406
dive brake, 422
high-pressure region on, 420
polynomial representations, 726t
zap flap, 420–422
Spoiler-flap, 950
ailerons, 951
types, 950f
Square TE, 257
SR, See Specific range
SR22
application, 622f
banking constraint diagram, 886f
composite sandwich construction, 119
drag model for, 610
drag polar and lift-to-drag ratio estimations, 906f
flat plate skin friction, 683
maximum lift coefficients, 361t–362t
sensitivity studies, 816
T-O performance of selected aircraft, 944t–945t
variation, 739f
Stability and Control
airfoils pitching moment, 244
AOA and AOY, 460
control horns, 975
dorsal fin and rudder locking, 973
forebody strakes, 973–974
handling requirements, 951
reference area, 302
static, 462
airplane, 462
Cmα historical values, 468
coordinate system, 462
dorsal fin, 477–480
longitudinal equilibrium, 468–472
pitching moment modeling, 466
requirements for lateral stability, 477
requirements for static directional stability, 476–477
static directional and lateral stability, 475–476
static longitudinal stability, 463–466
stick-fixed and stick-free neutral points, 472–473
tail design and spin recovery, 482–483
ventral fin, 480–482
tail sizing worksheet, 16
taillets and stabilons, 974–975
ventral fin
and deep stall, 973
and dutch roll, 973
Stabilons, 974
Stagger, 227
Stagger angle, 227
Stall, 251
angle-of-attack, 358
deep stall tendency, 966–967
long-bubble leading edge, 252
margin for horizontal tail, 967
progression on selected wing planforms, 371f
short-bubble leading edge, 252
speed limits, 65–66
strips, 975
TE, 75
types, 253f
Stall, leading edge, 251–252
Stall, trailing edge, 251
Stall AOA, 277–278
aerodynamic washout on, 322f
Clmax, 323
cons, 334–335
flow separation effect, 283f
Krüger flap, 410
planform shapes, 310f
tail leaves, 487
Stall characteristics
airfoil, 251
LE stall, 251–252
TE stall, 251
impact on flow separation, 289
jet aircraft, 977
NACA 23012 airfoil, 261
sharp drop, 291f
stall strips, 975
impact of sweep angle, 257
wing, 366
deviation from generic stall patterns, 369
flow separation growth, 367–369
influence of manufacturing tolerances, 378–379
pitch-up stall boundary for, 375–378
swept-back wing planform, 374–375
tailoring stall progression, 369–374
Stall handling
aerodynamic effectiveness, 442
capability, 966–967
impact on maximum lift and, 289
stall strips, 975–976
vortilons, 978
wing droop, 978
wing fence, 976–977
wing pylons, 977
Stall margin, 967
Stall progression
deviation from generic stall patterns, 369
dissimilar predictions, 972f
Krüger flap, 411
on selected wing planforms, 370f
on straight tapered wing planforms, 372f
tailoring
CFD methods, 369
design guidelines, 369–371
multi-airfoil wings, 373–374
stall characteristics, 369
wings with multiple airfoils, 371–373
Stall speed
CLmax for desired, 66
constraint diagram with, 66f
cruise speed carpet plot, 67–69
KIAS, 740
limits into constraint diagram, 65–66
Stall strips
stall handling, 975–976
stall progression, 330
Stall tailoring, 303
flow visualization, 369–370
washout effect on, 373f
Stalling airspeed
CLmax for desired, 66
level stalling speed with load factor, 62
sizing of wing area, 56
stalling speed during banking, 62
with thrust, flap and CG effects, 63
wing area function, 68t
Standard airworthiness certificate (AC), 14
Standard Airworthiness Type Certificate, 14
Standard atmosphere, See US standard
Standing mountain wave, 778–779
State of industry, 34–35
Statistical weight analysis, 142
aircraft, 142
statistical aircraft component methods
air conditioning and anti-icing, 144
avionics systems weight, 144
electrical system, 144
equations, 142
flight control-system weight, 144
fuel system weight, 144
furnishings, 144–145
fuselage weight, 143
guidance, 142
HT weight, 143
hydraulic system weight, 144
installed engine weight, 144
main landing gear weight, 143
nose landing gear weight, 143
VT weight, 143
wing weight, 142
statistical methods to engine weight estimation, 145
weight of piston engines, 145
weight of turbofan engines, 146
weight of turboprop engines, 146
STC, See Supplemental type certificate
Steady climb, 792
climb capability, 968
motion equations, 823
Steel
alloy, 106–107
endurance limit, 104
extrusion process, 101
forging metals, 101
low-carbon-grade, 101
properties, 107t
truss, 119
types, 564f
Steel alloy, 106–107
Steel truss, 119
Step
cruise speed carpet plot
aerodynamic properties calculation, 67
carpet plot creation, 67
carpet plot creation, 68–69
decide plot limits, 67
preliminary data, 67
preparation for plotting, 68
stall speed, 67
tabulate maximum airspeeds, 67–68
tabulate stall speeds, 67
engine performance charts, 228–229
fuselage external shape initial design, 526–529
geometric layout
taildragger landing gear, 569–570
tricycle landing gear layout, 567–569
maneuvering loads and design airspeeds, 775–778
NACA four-digit airfoils
airfoil ordinates computation, 258–259
airfoil resolution, 259
applications, 258
generation of NACA 4415, 260–261
numbering system, 258
ordinate rotation angle calculation, 260
preliminary values, 259
prepare ordinate table, 259
slope of mean-line calculation, 259–260
thickness calculation, 259
upper and lower ordinates calculation, 260
y-value for mean-line, 259
production steps, 8–9
propeller efficiency table, 630–631
quality function deployment
comparison matrix, 27
customer requirements, 22–24
GA airplane, 22
HQ preparation, 22
interrelationship matrix, 26
QFD, 22
roof, 25–26
survey responses, 21–22
targets, 27
technical requirements, 24
skin friction drag coefficient calculation, 680–686
turboprop engine thrust, 198–200
weight of ribs, 151t
weight of wing skin, 149t–150t
weight of wing shear web, 150t
weight of wing spar caps, 151t
Stick-fixed neutral point, 170
conventional aircraft, 472
design guidelines, 501–502
determination, 473
distinction, 472
impact of horizontal tail volume, 502f
Stick-free neutral point, 472
conventional aircraft, 472
distinction, 472
on hinge moments, 501
Storage
delta planform shape, 340–341
energy on board an aircraft, 206
wing available for fuel, 308
Straight-tapered, 439
Stress corrosion, 105
Strict liability, 34
Structural layout, 97–98
airframe, 116
fuselage structure layout, 126–127
horizontal vertical tail structure layout, 126–128
structural concepts, 116–120
wing structure layout, 120–126
Strut-braced wing
cantilever configuration, 88
maximum shear and bending loads, 87–88
Supercritical airfoil, 274
Supplemental type certificate (STC), 14
Supplemental Type Certificate, 14
Surface area
body of revolution, 536
cone, 537–538
elliptic cylinder, 537
paraboloid, 537–538
pod-style fuselage, 544
uniform cylinder, 537
wingtip device, 442
SURFACES software, 971
Swept
forward-swept wing, 318
for high-speed aircraft, 317
planforms, 336
aft-swept planform, 336
cons, 336–337
forward-swept, 337–338
pros, 336
variable swept, 338
swept-back wings, 122–123
aircraft inspection with, 123
rib layouts for, 122f
USAF DATCOM method for, 364–365
T
T-O rotation
inverted V-tail configuration, 493
limit, 170
operation, 303
T-O weight
maximum, 204
mission airplane design, 135
restrictions, 4t
Tadpole fuselage, 524
advantages, 524
approximation, 538f
modern sailplane, 665
properties, 524–525
Rolladen-Schneider LS4 sailplane boasts, 525f
surface areas and volumes, 539–542
transition and total fuselage drag, 525f
Tail
conventional, 483–485
cruciform, 486
design and spin recovery, 482–483
inverted U-Tail, 496
types, 554t
weight data for, 176t
wheel reaction, 576
Tail arm, 69
effect of changes in, 71–72
determination, 503–507
directional moment, 69–71
horizontal, 143
KC-135, 500f
tail sizing, 502–503
weight data, 176t
Tail configuration, 92
A-tail configuration, 495f
conventional, 484f
cruciform tail, 486
aft podded engine configuration, 486
drawbacks, 486
H-tail configuration, 494f
inverted V-tail configuration, 493f
rudder during spin on, 483f
U-Tail configuration, 496
V-tail or butterfly tail, 489–493
Y-tail configuration, 493f
Tail landing gear, 576
Tail surface area, 17t–18t
Tail upsweep, 529
Tail wheel
castering nose and, 553
positioning, 549
reaction, 576
Taildragger
advantages, 91
aircraft, 92
castering-wheel configurations, 553f
configurations, 92
free-body diagram, 938
geometric layout, 569–570
ground characteristics, 565–567
T-O analysis, 793
treatment of T-O run for, 815–816
Tailless aircraft
culver twist formula, 324
designer, 324
Panknin and Culver formulas, 325f
range of subsonic minimum drag coefficients, 752t
aircraft with swept wings, 337
dry, 186
padding factors, 763t
performance, 818t
requirement, 967–968
rotation capability, 966
three-position slat, 415
wet, 186
Take-Off over 50 ft, 816
sensitivity, 816–817
steep runway slope impact, 817
Takeoff safety airspeed, 773t–774t
Tandem
configuration, 92
fixed landing gear, 92
monowheel with outriggers, 92
Tandem wheel
configuration, 92
fixed landing gear, 92
pros and cons, 550t
Tandem wing, 976
Taper ratio, 303
during design phase, 307
mathematical expressions, 304–305
original and reduced wing, 394t
wing planform, 41
Tapered planform, 307f
compound, 335
semi-tapered planform, 339
straight, 334
airplane types, 334
cons, 334–335
drawback, 334
geometry and lifting characteristics, 334f
pros, 334
TC, See Type certificate
Technical Standard, Authorization Order, 15
Technical standard order (TSO), 15
Technical Standard Order, 15
Technical standard order authorization (TSOA), 15
Temperature
in adiabatic compression, 217
atmospheric ambient, 763–764
on engine power, 195
equations for, 767
glass transition, 113
high cabin, 88
TET, 186
Thermal
cruise flaps, 284
Klegecell®, 111
properties, 110–111
Thermodynamics
gas turbines, 183–184
piston engines, 183
power plant, 183
THP, See Thrust horsepower
3-dimensional lift coefficient, 237
Three-view drawings, 28
Throttle ratio
aircraft engine design, 197–198
ambient air, 196
CET and TET, 196–197
function, 207
High compressor pressure ratio, 197
prediction of engine thrust, 198
theta-break, 198
Thrust, 41
airspeed in, 857–858
analytical methods, 632
asymmetric, 476
coefficients, 614–615
computer code, 207–209
constraint analysis, 56
efficiency model for, 812f
elevator authority, 89
flat rating, 187
generation, 184–185
for jet-powered aircraft, 804
level stalling speed with, 861–862
maximum
climb power, 187
cruise power, 187
optimum design points, 58
Prandtl correction, 655
for propeller, 572
propulsive power, 595
ratio, 202f
using simplified drag model, 874f
THP, 185–186
thrust-to-weight ratio, 185
Thrust coefficient, 614
calculation, 648–649
fraction, 635
propeller, 47
Thrust effects, 91
mechanical energy, 184
on stability and control, 224
Thrust generation, 184
net force, 184–185
propeller and gas turbines, 185
rockets, 185
take-off, 186
theoretical representation, 184f
thrust-to-weight ratio, 185
Thrust horsepower (THP), 185–186
Thrust specific fuel consumption, 197
for jet, 898
for piston engine, 898
special version, 912
variables, 922–923
Thrustline
free-body diagram, 712f
effect of high or low, 90f
trim drag, 712
Time to altitude, 836–837
Tip chord, 303
leading edge, 303–304
spherical wingtip, 443
straight tapered wing planform, 334
Tire
drag of tires, 718t
inflation pressure, 549
sizes, 555
Tire inflation pressure, 549
Tire sizes, 555
Titanium, 107
firewall, 681
Tooling, 10
control surfaces, 271–272
cost analysis, 34
man-hours number, 6
total cost of, 40
Torque, 183
AOA, 594
calculation, 642
conversion, 186
power-torque relation, 44–46
RPM, 186
turboprop aircraft, 186
variation, 649f
Tort reform, 35
Total distance, 192
determination, 813
landing phase, 935
Touch-down
airspeeds, 939t
landing phase, 935
motion equation, 938
pilot to flare aircraft, 966
weight at point of, 916–917
Touch-down airspeed, 935
Tractor propeller
configuration, 91
designing team, 531
Trailing edge tab, 980–981
Trailing link landing gear, 564
Transition, 248
boundary layer, 248–249
distance determination, 813–814
FRPs and GRPs, 113
from laminar to turbulent flow, 676f
laminar-to-turbulent, 679
movement, 677f
parameters, 679t
pressure distribution, 242
Surface roughness, 249
T-O run segments, 794t
Transition ramp
separation bubbles, 250
transition curve, 981
Trapezoidal planform, 303
leading edge, 303
MGC for, 307f
trapezoidal wing planform, 304f
Tricycle
configuration, 91
fixed landing gear, 92
ground stability, 567f
landing gear, 565–566
landing gear reaction loads, 571–572
aerodynamic loads, 572–573
design guidelines, 572f
static loads, 572
location, 568f
pros and cons, 550t
stable on, 92
taildragger configuration, 92
Triplane
aspect ratio, 305
drag characteristics, 753t
primary advantage, 86
for commercial jetliners, 430
heavy mechanical system, 429
True airspeed, 770
airspeeds, 48
equivalent airspeed, 770
ground speed, 770–771
landing distance, 942
using simplified drag mode, 872f
TSO, See Technical standard order
TSOA, See Technical standard order authorization
Tubular, 102
fuselage, 523
landing gear struts drag, 720t–721t
streamlined tension wire, 719
Turbo-normalizing, 193–194
Turbocharger, 194
Turbofan engine, 41
altitude and airspeed effect, 201
GA aircraft, 200
generic-low-bypass ratio thrust, 202
mounted on pylons, 5
Turbojet engine, 41
altitude and airspeed effect, 200
fuel consumption, 199
thrust of generic, 200
Turboprop engine, 41
altitude and airspeed effect, 198–199
firewall, 210
installation, 222
reversing propeller, 586
T-O Power and SFC, 197t
Turbulator, 981
Turbulent boundary layer, 248
drag sensitivity, 909
fluid flow inside laminar, 248f
laminar-to-turbulent transition, 679
skin friction coefficient for, 680
Turbulent flow
dependency, 668
tip airfoil, 756
transition, 676f
Turning radius
aircraft, 552
distance to turning center, 552
geometric definitions for, 552f
minimum sustainable, 889
2-dimensional lift coefficient, See Section lift coefficient
Two position leading edge slat, 412
geometric parameters, 413f
mechanical aspect, 413f
Two position propeller, 586
Type certificate, 13–14
propeller, 210
STC, 14
Type III tire, 719
Type metric tire, 557t
Type radial tire, 558t
Type Three-part tire, 977
Type VII tire, 549
U
U-tail
propeller configurations, 496
twin tail-boom configuration, 496
USAF DATCOM, 303–304
arbitrary chord line angle, 305
CLmax estimation, 355–360
method for swept wings, 364–365
Utility Category, 125f
V
V-tail
advantages, 490
difference in yaw response, 492f
GA aircraft, 489
inverted, 493
pitch-up moment, 490
Rudlicki V-tail, 489
simplified theory, 493
unconventional tails, 127–128
Variable camber Krüger flap leading edge, 411
Variable camber leading edge, 406–407
Ventral fin, 480
AOA condition, 480
installation, 482
on Learjet 60, 973f
pitching moment curve, 482f
solid curve, 480–482
stability and control, 973
Vertical airspeed, 824
general rate-of-climb, 825–826
in thrust or power, 824–825
aircraft components, 80–81
control surfaces, 126–127
empennage, 81
heavy aircraft, 126
larger airplanes feature, 126
spar of light aircraft, 126
unconventional tails, 127–128
volumes, 500–501
weight, 37–43
yaw control, 965f
Viscous profile efficiency, 618
fixed-pitch propellers, 639
magnitude, 639
momentum theory, 638
Volume
absolute humidity, 766
break-even analysis, 43
compression ratio, 192
fuselage, 26
infinitesimal, 619
mid-wing configuration, 85
passenger, 84
structural standpoint, 130
Vortex
flow improvement, 978–980
generators on aft fuselage, 692f
pylon, 977
stall handling, 978
wingtip correction, 737
Vortex filament, 380
Biot-Savart law, 380
constant-strength straight, 381f
Helmholz’s vortex theorems, 381
lifting line formulation, 381–384
Vortex generator, 432
on aft fuselage, 692f
installation and wind tunnel testing, 980
large fixed-pitch, 692
on lower HT surface, 980f
nacelle strakes, 981
W
Washout
aerodynamic, 319–323
AR values for, 309t
combination, 323
drag due to wing, 736
on probable stall progression, 373f
wing twist, 319–325
Water spray, 89–90
Weight budget, 173
acceptable for test vehicle, 174
actual weights, 174t
aircraft into categories, 174
weight analysis, 141
weight reduction, 173–174
Weight ratio
cruise, 917
mission, 917
payloads, 920
Weight tolerances, 174–176
Welding, 101–102
Wheel
castering-wheel configurations, 553f
configurations, 92
fairings, 718
forward compressor, 200–201
gearbox, 228f
modern and aluminum wheels, 558–559
open and closed, 723
positioning, 549
T-O phase, 792
Wheel track, 551
ground instability, 566f
overturn angle, 569
Whistling, 565
Wing area, 15
comparing results, 394t
constraint analysis, 56
maximum airspeeds, 67–68
trade study, 66–67
zap flap, 420–422
Wing aspect ratio
aircraft properties, 83t
impact of aspect ratio on, 310t
lift-induced drag magnitude, 309
Wing attachment, 29
aft, 126
extrusions, 101
fastener orientation, 124–125
transfer wing torsion, 122
Wing droop, 978
Wing fence, 976–977
Wing planform
aerospace engineer’s formula sheet, 997
arbitrary, 960
constant-chord sweptback, 337f
crescent, 339
elliptical, 333f
formidable fighters, 333
stall progression on, 372f
for generic airplane, 329
ideal, actual and wasted lift distributions, 329f
Reynolds numbers for, 330–331
sweep angle, 318
trapezoidal, 303–309
Wing pylons, 977
Wing skin, 118
Cuffs for composite aircraft, 978
multi-airfoil wings, 373
translation, 430–431
turbulent boundary layer, 691
Wing span, 307
DATCOM, 355
physical and angular stations relationship, 391f
physical dimensions, 331–332
roll damping derivative, 955
scaling top view based on, 682f
taper ratio, 315–316
Wing taper ratio, 315–316
general rule-of-thumb, 317
passenger-carrying aircraft, 317
spanwise distribution, 316f
Winglet, 274
blended winglet, 451–452
design and patent, 452
modern airliners, 452
comparison, 449f
Dutch roll damping, 448–449
familiar airbus, 448f
generation of lift, 450
hypothetical installation, 852–853
interference factors, 700t
lift-induced drag to distribution, 450
skin friction and interference drag, 449–450
Whitcomb winglet
development, 450–451
flight test evaluation, 451
on McDonnell-Douglas, 451f
wind-tunnel model, 451
Wingtip, 80–81
aerodynamic effectiveness, 442
booster, 444–446
cons, 333
correction, 737–738
design, 441
on drag polar, 442f
endplate, 448
hoerner, 446
lifting characteristics, 340
parasite areas and coefficients, 699t
raked, 446–448
round, 443
spherical, 443–444
square, 444
stalls, 319
tip-loading, 317
Wood construction, 117–119
Work, 184t
engineering reports, 30
fabrication, 8–9
hardening, 101
IPTs, 9
Lachmann’s original, 412
torque, 186
ventral fins, 480
wing fence, 976
X
XFLR software, 255
airfoils, 254–255
user interface, 255f
Xfoil software, 255
airfoils, 255
capabilities, 255f
Reynolds number, 272–273
vortex-lattice code, 971
Y
Y-tail, 92
configuration, 493f
shorter-span V-tail, 494
V-tail variation, 493
aerodynamic properties, 310t
airplane, 475
angle, 71
dorsal fin, 479f
frise ailerons, 951
stability and control theory, 460
Yaw control, 460
fundamentals, 964
VT and TEL, 965f
Yawing, 491
airplane effect, 696f
stabilizing moment, 566
Yawing moment, 69–71
H-Tail, 494
magnitude, 597–598
nacelles, 91
Yehudi flap, 79t
Z
Zap flap, 420–422
data for, 423
on full-scale aircraft, 422
hinge moment, 422
Zero lift angle-of-attack
airfoil at, 240f
design lift coefficient, 343
midpoint cruise value, 326
variables, 397–398
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