2.2.1 Video Transmission

Video transmission applications are identified as critical by most PPDR disciplines. Video information can greatly improve situational awareness as well as serve to enhance command and control. Examples of video applications are wireless video surveillance and remote monitoring, vehicle-mounted video, helmet camera video, aerial video feeds and use of third-party camera resources.

In wireless video surveillance and remote monitoring applications, a sensor (fixed or mobile) can record and distribute data in video streaming format, which is then collected and distributed to PPDR responders and command and control centres. This may include:

• High-resolution video communications from wireless clip-on cameras to a vehicle-mounted laptop computer, used during traffic stops or responses to other incidents
• Video surveillance of security entry points such as airports with automatic detection based on reference images, hazardous material or other relevant parameters
• High-resolution real-time video from, and remote monitoring of, firefighters in a burning building

Vehicle-mounted video cameras in fire/rescue and law enforcement vehicles on an as-needed basis (vs. a continual video feed) would allow command post and control centres personnel to visualize the incident scene in relation to damage and apparent needs when compared to other incident scenes. Vehicle-mounted video also enhances on-scene safety by allowing third parties to check on the incident scene, verifying that personnel are accounted for and monitoring the success or failure of the incident mitigation plan. Moreover, vehicle-mounted video allows the incident command team to ‘see’ the incident and develop a better perspective of the operational requirements. In the absence of video, the command staff must rely on a radio transmission description of the scene from first arriving units. It is a common practice in many countries to equip patrol cars with video technology to record any incidents. There are clear advantages in being able to transfer this information to control centres in real time, in order to keep command centre staff fully informed. Video can also facilitate the identification of individuals and vehicles on location, so that the officials may be given additional instructions on-site.

Helmet cameras can transmit live information to fixed or mobile control centres. Video from helmet cameras could enhance situational awareness and allow for better decision-making. For example, appropriate command staff and supervisors need access to helmet-mounted cameras to obtain real-time video images from firefighters inside a burning building to better assess needed resources and tactics. Video would also allow a subject matter expert to provide remote technical assistance. For example, a building engineer may provide advice to firefighters working inside a collapsed building on the status of a load-bearing wall that is in danger of collapse. A chemical plant engineer could look at helmet camera video of a damaged valve in a ‘hot zone’ at the factory and provide advice on how to best shut the leak down without creating more problems or damage. Trauma centre physicians and other critical care physicians have expressed the need to visualize the patient while the ambulance is on the way to the hospital. Certain low-volume, high-risk procedures could also be performed more safely under the video guidance of a physician who was monitoring and guiding the patient care team remotely. Law enforcement personnel could use video feeds to monitor the progress of officers conducting a sweep of a building for a dangerous suspect, could allow personnel at the command post to confirm the identity of a subject discovered by the sweep team and could provide expert support during an assessment of a bomb or explosive device. In a correctional facility, video feeds from officers provide an additional level of safety and security and accountability. These cameras would be capable of supporting high-, medium- and low-resolution ‘situational awareness’ mode of video display. The resolution needed by the incident commander would depend on the type of incident and the issue being addressed. Cameras can also be installed in robots. Robots with high-resolution cameras could investigate a building before human firefighters are committed, to see if there are additional hazardous, flammable or explosive materials present.

Live video transfer from cameras in helicopters already takes place in many PPDR scenarios. Airborne video could originate for a staffed unit, like a law enforcement helicopter, or from a non-staffed unit, such as a remote-controlled or radio-controlled aircraft. Access to aerial video feeds can help law enforcement command staff to develop appropriate situational awareness of the incident scene, plan evacuation routes, monitor crowd behaviour and movement and monitor the progression of the emergency. Likewise, fire/rescue command staff could use separate real-time video to view the incident scene, progression of the emergency, identification of adjoining building fire exposures and other risk factors and to observe movement of the fire or chemical cloud. An infrared video feed is especially important to determine fire spread inside a large warehouse structure, to look for injured persons in the dark who may not be visible to first responders and to see the liquid level of various storage tanks containing flammable materials. Rural areas also reported that video is a critical tool in the management of large wild land fires to monitor fire spread, to determine the viability of fire breaks, to plan and monitor evacuation routes and to identify homes and structures which may need immediate evacuation.

Command staff and supervisors need the ability to view third-party video feeds, including those from both public and private organizations. Many businesses, apartment complexes and industries use security video on a daily basis (e.g. CCTV systems). Appropriate command staff and supervisors should be able to view the security camera videos of an office building pointing at the specific place where, for example, the fire alarm is sounding. This situational awareness, including the presence or absence of smoke and fire, allows for appropriate decisions on the deployment of resources. Better management of available resources would allow one of the fire apparatus to respond to another emergency a few blocks away, instead of sending other, more distant, fire department resources to that scene. As well, law enforcement personnel should be able to view third-party security camera video while arriving on the scene of a robbery alarm, shooting or other violent crime to determine appropriate tactical actions that are needed to protect human life. Video is also extremely helpful when dealing with large crowds and large-scale events. The ability to track a fleeing suspect in a crowded mall (where airborne video is unavailable) would be greatly enhanced via the ability to monitor security video from the various exit points in the area. The recent phenomena involving flash mobs may also be better managed via the availability of video resources. Access to existing traffic camera systems is also critical to assess traffic flow and congestion when determining suitable evacuation routes or checking on the status of a dedicated evacuation route. These cameras also allow wide area access to monitor smoke plumes and chemical cloud releases.

2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that analyses, displays, edits, integrates, shares and/or stores multiple types of information items indexed by geolocation coordinates and time information (space–time location). Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate unrelated information, typically organized in layers, by using the space–time location as the key index variable.GIS systems will play an important role in the incident management of the future: GIS and location intelligence systems can be the foundation for creating powerful decision support and collaborative applications for PPDR. For example, incident commanders may need to visualize street-level detail and use stored information from various GIS layers. In addition to viewing streets and landmarks, GIS may also provide aerial photography snapshots of an incident area. This information on the proximity of other buildings and exposures is critical when creating an incident action plan and when establishing a COP. GIS data may also display various utility layers including sewer, water, electric and gas lines and connections. Instantaneous access to site information is essential, for example, to help firefighting units execute plans more efficiently by allowing them to access and share relevant information quickly, without having to thumb through thick binders of paper information, about, for example, what’s around and behind the place or building that they’re about to enter. In this way, firefighters could determine what fire hydrants to connect to a single underground water supply line according to its dimension. It is also critical when determining where toxic chemicals may have travelled once they entered the storm water system.

Current existing applications for instantaneous access to site information can see significant evolution as PPDR broadband becomes prevalent and reliable, which can progressively leverage data from environmental sensors, biometric sensors and the firefighter location solutions, so that incident commanders could have the information needed to make better decisions than ever before. GIS data sources are becoming extremely robust including high-resolution aerial images and other data layers. The raw databases for a metropolitan area may contain several gigabytes (GB) of information, which may also be updated frequently. As the PPDR personnel on the scene need only a portion of that information in an incident response, the resulting operational model is one where GIS-based data and views are retrieved as needed for the incident. Therefore, the size of the incident area, the quantities of layers of data and the type of requested data determine the amount of data to be downloaded from the databases, which should be received typically within a few minutes. In this regard, mobile broadband capabilities are essential for the use of GIS applications by intervention teams on the field.

2.2.3 Location and Tracking

Related to the use of GIS applications to support PPDR operations, tracking of vehicles’ and officers’ positions is key for command staff and supervisors to be able to visualize personnel and vehicle resources on scene, including units responding and units in staging to make appropriate tactical decisions during an emergency. This is a common application already in use nowadays, which is typically implemented by means of GPS position localizers embedded in handheld and vehicular terminals, whose coordinates are sent periodically to the control centres through the narrowband PMR systems. Broadband transmission could further improve this application by allowing higher frequency updates as well as additional information that can be notified in addition to the spatial coordinates. AVL information should include all resources on scene such as EMS, fire/rescue, law enforcement and other public safety support units (i.e. mass care, public works, regional transit, etc.). For example, the decision to sustain the fire attack against a warehouse fire could be based on the number of fire trucks already in staging or in close enough proximity to the incident scene to be effective. A decision on managing the safe evacuation of a nursing home would be impacted by knowledge of the exact location and proximity of transit vehicles to the scene. Tracking the location of personnel and vehicles is also a critical piece of an agency’s accountability and safety programme. Command staff and many supervisors also need to track individual public safety personnel, such as firefighters, who are on the scene of the incident. Automatic personnel location (APL) is especially critical for those employees who are conducting search and rescue operations inside the collapsed building and those who are working in the ‘hot zone’ with the gas leak. Law enforcement supervisors also need to track the location of on-scene deputies and police officers who leave their patrol car and are operating on foot in a hazardous situation (e.g. conducting a building search for an armed suspect). This type of location technology must support X, Y and Z coordinates, meaning that the incident commander must know if the injured public safety worker is in the basement or on the n-th floor. While this information may exist in multiple disparate systems, the incident command team needs to able to visualize the incident scene and the resources on a single display screen. This would require that AVL/APL data be collected from various agencies, consolidated and then distributed to the command team and appropriate supervisors.

2.2.4 Electronic Conferencing and Coordination Tools for Incident Command

Incident command requires a variety of applications to fulfil its mission. It is both a consumer and producer of substantial amounts of information. In addition to voice communications, electronic conferencing tools in PPDR can facilitate the sharing of information between the intervention team leaders at the emergency scene and local officials in the agency’s (or other) control centre or headquarters facility in an interactive way. Video conferencing is one of the key features, allowing a number of ‘distributed’ meeting participants, who may be dispersed in several locations, to share video and audio signals.

PPDR incident command might also benefit from other features typically found in electronic conferencing tools, such as data conferencing (i.e. sharing of a common whiteboard among participants) and application sharing (e.g. participants can access a shared document or application from their respective computers simultaneously in real time). Hence, a common whiteboard application can greatly improve incident command coordination and response by easily sharing different and diverse data information such as notes, documentation and marked-up photographs. This information could be sent early in the incident to give all units on the scene an overview of the event and the operational plan. Furthermore, as the incident command system is more fully implemented, a formal incident action plan can also be distributed to all units on the scene in a more rapid and effective way. These action plans may comprise images, electrical plans, hazardous material information, building drawings, ingress/egress points and other contents that can require several megabytes (MB) of information to be distributed to dozens of personnel. As of today, incident action plan documents are frequently converted to PDF files and transmitted via e-mail communication or printed and distributed in hard copy [3]).

Incident command tools can also embrace support for collaborative management (coordination). Collaborative management tools are intended to facilitate and manage group activities. An example of collaborative management is a workflow system to manage tasks and documentation within a knowledge-based business process for PPDR operations.

2.2.5 Remote Database Access and Information Transfer Applications

In a general sense, this category of applications covers those electronic communications tools used to transfer messages, files, data or documents between PPDR officers on patrol or at the incident site and databases or information systems located in remote locations such as headquarters and control centres. Access to specific remote databases and applications to retrieve information while working on a routine operation or emergency scene can greatly improve PPDR working practices.

Remote database access and information transfer applications can benefit from reduced latencies and increased throughputs delivered through mobile broadband connectivity. Some examples are given in the following.

Law enforcement personnel must frequently query remote databases and be able to determine if a subject has a prior criminal history or an arrest warrant. In this kind of use, remote database access could be complemented with document scanning features. Hence, in patrolling or border security operations, PPDR officers can verify a document like a driving licence in a more efficient way. Documents scan is also useful in border security operations where people, who cross the borders, may have documents in bad condition or falsified. Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) is also a typical use case within law enforcement activities, where a camera captures licence plates and transmits the image to headquarters or a centre with the plate data to verify that the vehicles have not been stolen or the owner is a crime offender.

Firefighters could be informed of the layout of a building by downloading images or video to a handheld device. In case of an emergency crisis or a natural disaster, PPDR responders may have the need to access the layout of the buildings where people may be trapped or where dangerous chemicals are kept. Fire rescue units need the ability to retrieve building pre-plan information, photographs and diagrams of hazardous materials storage, location of hydrants and water valves. Chemical data, building or floor plans can be requested to the headquarters and transmitted to the first responders.

EMS personnel also use data to review detailed drug information and poison control documentation and advise on various emerging health threats. Rescue ambulances could have access a web-based application to show hospital availability and also to track ambulance/patient destinations. In a similar way, a regional transit bus being used to move evacuated persons to a shelter should be able to access information on street closures, best routes and other information on their assignment.

Immediate access to real-time weather information might be essential at many emergency scenes. This is particularly true with wild land fires where changes in wind and humidity can cause significant changes in fire behaviour. Command staff and appropriate supervisors at the scene of a hazardous materials emergency also need to monitor wind speed and direction to determine evacuation areas and where ‘shelter in place’ orders should be given. While a single weather data station may be adequate for some incidents, the capability should exist for a consolidated view of multiple on-site weather reporting units.

2.2.6 PPDR Personnel Monitoring and Biomedical Telemetry

Vital signs of PPDR officers could be monitored in real time to verify their health conditions. This is particularly important for firefighters at fire ground incidents and officers involved in search and rescue operations. This involves monitoring, recording and measuring of basic physiological functions, such as heart rate, muscle activity and body temperature, of PPDR personnel, as well as other aspects such as air supply status, ambient temperature, presence of toxic gases, etc. A biomedical telemetry system would send these metrics from the individual first responder to an outside monitoring post and potentially move the data off-site to a central monitoring and recording station at their headquarters.

Besides constant monitoring of PPDR personnel, a biomedical telemetry system can also be central for remote emergency medical services (discussed in next section) as well as for other more specific applications such as identification of persons. For example, PPDR officers may check the biometric data of potential criminals (e.g. fingerprints, facial and iris recognition) during their patrolling duty and transmit it in real time to the headquarters or a centre with the biometric archives. This would be a positive method of identification during field interrogation stops.

2.2.7 Remote Emergency Medical Services

Through transmission of video and data, medical personnel may intervene or support the team in the field for an emergency patient. Biomedical telemetry can be used for sick and injured patients. In this regard, EMS personnel could be able to transmit a patient’s heart rhythm, including a full 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), from scene to hospital for physician interpretation. A high-speed and reliable network would enable more complex types of biomedical telemetry monitoring and diagnostic applications. For example, certain types of testing to detect the presence of poisoning require interpretation by a specialist. Additionally, monitoring would be needed for serial blood glucose readings, oxygen saturation levels and carbon monoxide tracking.

Applications for tracking patients/evacuees/deceased are also crucial in disaster response and recovery operations. Command staff and supervisors need a mechanism that will track all persons on the scene and their eventual disposition. Paramedics currently attach a barcode or radio frequency identity (RFID) bracelet on each patient and then use a grocery store scanner-type device to enter in brief demographics before uploading a snapshot photograph and all information for centralized tracking and distribution to the receiving hospital. This same system would also track all evacuated persons, again using RFID or barcode scanner technology, allowing a snapshot photo of the citizen and demographics which are then uploaded to a server for distribution to the command post and public information centres and websites.

2.2.8 Sensors and Remotely Controlled Devices

Sensors networks could be deployed in a specific area and transmit images (thermal) or data to the PPDR responders operating in the area or to the command centre at the headquarters. Third-party sensors can also be leveraged. Hence, command staff and appropriate supervisors need to be able to ‘connect’ to various automated building systems to view alarm codes and conditions. For example, the fire department may need to determine or change the status of the air conditioning and ventilation system during a toxic gas leak. Law enforcement officials may need to access a specific building’s security system to determine where a suspect may be based on a log of door activations. Likewise, there is a need to know the status of various hazardous sensors installed in many government buildings and large assembly areas, which are used to detect poisonous gases, radioactive materials, biological and other profiles. During an emergency inside an industrial plant, it would be critical to remotely monitor the status of various mechanical and automated systems, remotely turning on or off surveillance microphones or surveillance cameras (including remotely aiming or pointing the camera) and activating and deactivating alarms.

Vehicle telemetry is also of great relevance. A large number of vehicles can be typically present at the scene of almost all major emergencies. It is not uncommon in the fire service for dozens of fire trucks to be stationary and providing pump support. In some cases, particularly wild land fires, these engines may be pumping water for days as the firefighter crews rotate on and off duty. Public safety needs a system where the vehicle’s health data is transmitted back to the incident command post for evaluation by personnel assigned to logistics. For example, attempting to determine which fire trucks need to be refuelled can be a daunting task. The ability to react to a report of falling oil pressure could prevent a major mechanical failure. Various telemetry systems also in use or envisaged within a range of PPDR usage scenarios include control of moving fixed assets (e.g. vehicles, equipment in hospitals, etc.)

Robotic devices can also be used to record images within badly damaged buildings that are too unstable for officers to enter or to operate within explosive areas or in underwater searches. There is likely to be increasing use of drone vehicles and aircraft over the next few years, mainly to obtain surveillance information without putting at risk the lives of the emergency services personnel (e.g. robotics-controlled bomb disposal). A drone vehicle might take the form of an unmarked car fitted with a number of concealed video cameras and a broadband wireless link. The vehicle’s cameras will record all motion so as to enable the investigators to watch the footage in real time over the wireless link from the safety of a more distant location. A number of companies already market mobile CCTV systems that can relay real-time video via 3G mobile networks. Unmanned aeronautical vehicles (UAVs) are also increasingly deployed by the military, for example, to provide remote surveillance over wide areas. In this case, substantial bandwidth might be required, both to support surveillance video signals and the control and telemetry signals necessary to fly the UAV remotely.

2.2.9 Mobile Office

Access to common office applications such as e-mail and web browsing and access to intranets can be made available to PPDR officers also when patrolling or responding to an incident. E-mail and other office applications (e.g. contact databases, workflow applications, web browsing, etc.) could be used to improve the timely response of routine administrative processes as well as improve response in emergencies. For example, incident reporting can be performed via mobile devices, reducing the need to return to headquarters/control centres to access office applications. Incident-specific information could be exchanged using web applications. These applications would enable incident commanders to access their agency intranet to pull down various documents and templates. Of specific interest are building pre-plan documents that contain draft version of the floor layouts, access points, control rooms, etc.

Other data-centric applications such as business and data analytics are also increasingly being introduced in PPDR organizations, but they mainly remain accessible from desktop positions and cannot be used from officers in the field. For example, law enforcement personnel conducting research at their desks can benefit from systems designed to sort through information from multiple databases and provide officers with information relevant to the scene of an incident. While such tools are undoubtedly useful in its current form, the potential benefits will be realized fully when officers in the field are able to access this type of applications via handheld smart devices with mobile broadband connectivity.

2.4.1 Throughput Requirements of PPDR Applications

PPDR data-centric applications can have very different rate requirements that place varying levels of demand on the capacity of a broadband mobile network. The estimation of the load on the network for each of these applications is necessary for the dimensioning of the infrastructure and spectrum assets.

A quantitative estimate of the throughput requirement per application is included within the LEWP/ETSI Matrix. For each of the applications listed in Table 2.2, the details of a single data transaction are characterized, distinguishing between transactional- and streaming-based applications and between uplink (end user to the fixed network) and downlink (fixed network to end user) transmissions when appropriate. For transaction-based applications, the size of a data transaction is estimated as the number of bytes of information required in each single transaction. For streaming-based applications, the peak bit data rates and duration (in minutes) are given. In addition, for each application either transactional- or streaming-based, the average number of transactions/sessions per user in a peak busy hour in normal conditions is provided according to PPDR end users’ experience. Based on this characterization of the transaction details, estimates for the bit rate requirements per hour per user can be easily derived. Table 2.4 shows the resulting throughput estimates of the PPDR applications according to the application characterization provided in the LEWP/ETSI Matrix.

As observed from Table 2.4, video streaming applications are expected to be by far the largest contributors to the peak hour throughput, both in uplink and downlink directions. The considered peak data rates for video applications vary from 768 to 64 kb/s because of the different uses of streamed video that can have very different quality attributes (e.g. the required video quality differs considerably between having only some level of situational awareness and using the video source as focal point to follow the details of a fast and complex PPDR intervention). Hence, video throughput is highly dependent on a required video quality, which largely depends on the resolution of the image and the frame rate (number of images per second) as well as a variety of factors such as target size, motion level and lighting level. In recent years, the coding engines that convert the raw video information into a highly compressed data stream have dramatically improved, and this trend is likely to continue. The state-of-the-art commercial video coders are capable of sustaining very high-quality video with a relatively low bit rate and requiring relatively low computing resources.

Following the streamed video, recorded video transmission in both uplink and downlink and reporting of operational information such as pictures in uplink are the applications that require larger volumes of data per transaction. These applications are estimated to send data volumes in the order of a few MB per transaction. It is worth noting that while these applications may only represent a few kilobit per second on average in the busy hour, the instantaneous data rate achieved when sending this data can be quite relevant from a quality of service point of view, since it will determine the amount of time needed for data delivery (e.g. delivery of a 1 MB picture from the incident in 5 s may be a reasonable target).

Typical data rate values for data and video PPDR applications have been also reported by the NPSTC in Ref. [4]. As the figures from the LEWP/ETSI Matrix, NPSTC’s reported data rate values are intended to represent typical data rates necessary to sustain sufficient quality of service. Table 2.5 shows the resulting throughput characterization of the PPDR applications according to NPSTC’s studies, which represent the usage impact of a single user of each application. In this case, streamed video applications (referred to as ‘incident video’ by NPSTC) also represent the most important source of traffic, distinguishing in this case three general video categories:

1. High quality. This represents 1 Mb/s throughput requirement and provides high resolution (e.g. standard-definition television) and high frame rate communications. High quality is capable of high motion in a highly dynamic range of light, with small target size, and discrimination capable of facial recognition.
2. Medium quality. Related to 512 kb/s throughput requirement, medium resolution and high frame rate communications. Medium quality is capable of high motion in high dynamic range of light, with small target sizes, and discrimination capable of licence plate recognition. It provides an overview of an incident scene and enables visualization of broad elements of action.
3. Low quality. Representing video feeds with 256 kb/s throughput requirement, low resolution and high frame rate communications. Low quality is capable of low motion, with large target size, high dynamic light range and object identification. Low speed is capable of providing situational awareness with some level of perspective of each video source. It provides a large area tactical view but little specific details.

Video throughput numbers are experienced in both uplink and downlink directions depending on the source and destination of each video stream. For example, a low-speed situational awareness stream may be transmitted from the incident location on the uplink and then back down to incident command on the downlink. Therefore, these rates are applied to the uplink and downlink separately. A ‘return path’ data speed is also included in the NPSTC analysis to accommodate acknowledgement or other traffic associated with two-way communications where appropriate.

Following streamed video, the use of GIS tools and the tracking of civilians are the next two applications considered in NPSTC analysis that could consume the largest bandwidth. In the case of GIS, as described in Section 2.2.2, a variety of geospatial-based data may be required by incident commanders and other personnel at the incident. GIS data sources are becoming extremely robust including high-resolution aerial images and other data layers. For the throughput characterization, NPSTC assumes the downloaded data for each GIS view is 350 KB and that data must be transmitted over 4–5 s in order to achieve a reasonable quality of service. This results in a requirement of around 700 kb/s in downlink. With regard to the application for tracking of civilians, it is considered that PPDR personnel collect a 100 KB dataset that includes patient demographic information, images and medical information. The data is not extremely time sensitive and could be transmitted over 1 min. Considering that one person can process one patient per minute, the impact on the system is estimated as 13.3 kb/s in uplink.

2.4.2 Day-to-Day Operations Scenarios

Day-to-day operations scenarios can be considered as the minimum requirement for PPDR activity. In this context, two everyday life situations where it is considered that mobile broadband communications are in place are described in the following [7]: a road accident and a traffic stop police operation. In addition, some estimates for the background traffic load that could be expected as a result of routine PPDR operations are also provided.

The road accident scenario illustrates the response to a car crash where the occupants are assisted by police and EMS personnel. An ambulance and a helicopter are involved. There is exchange of data information with control rooms (e.g. patient’s profile for remote diagnosis), and a cardiologist from a hospital joins the incident group call (voice and video) providing advice. The simplified timeline of the scenario is as follows (a more detailed description can be found in Ref. [7]). At 8:40, the emergency control centre (ECC) in the area is informed of a car crash. Information received by the ECC from people who called consists of voice descriptions together with photos and videos sent though public networks (assuming PSAP support multimedia capabilities, commonly referred to as next generation 911/112). Information provided by the sensors in the car, which has access to public networks, can also be used. Emergency and medical services as well as police are dispatched immediately. The crews are given the best route to reach the accident location and all information available about the car trash through the PPDR communications services. An alert is also sent to place a helicopter on standby. Paramedics arrive at the car crash site at 8:52. On their arrival and having quickly assessed the situation, they ask for the helicopter and an ambulance. Thanks to the images and the situation description (location), the helicopter can land very close to the accident with very little help from personnel on the ground. The police also arrive and secure the area to ensure authorized personnel only to enter the area. The police start to gather evidence to help to establish what exactly happened. There are two injured people, one still trapped within the car. The first patient is a male that responds to voice and has no visible injuries but complains of shoulder pain. The paramedic uses several devices with radio interfaces to assist him (e.g. ECG, vital measurements). The patient’s profile is sent to the ECC and from there to the patient’s hospital. The male patient has a medallion providing medical data. Based on this data, the doctor in the ECC makes a diagnosis of a heart attack and a decision to take him to another hospital where specialist facilities exists is made. Data needed for initial treatment to stabilize the patient is transmitted to the ambulance. The second patient is female. She is unresponsive but breathing, with an open head injury. At 9:02, a heavy rescue vehicle arrives and the car roof that was collapsed is cut and removed. At 9:12, a cardiologist from the hospital joins the incident group call (voice and video), providing advice to the male patient in the ambulance. At the same time, the female patient is taken care of by the doctor. All medical data is sent to the control room to be put in the database. The medical crew monitors the female patient while she is transported in the helicopter.

Based on the above description, the following main communications requirements are identified:

• All information about the car crash is communicated to emergency and medical services (location, pictures).
• Patient information is sent to the ECC and then sent to the ambulance.
• Images and video link sent to the helicopter (considering that low-flying helicopters may use terrestrial networks).
• Video of patient on accident site to hospital.

Considering that not all of these transmissions would be simultaneous, the peak use is estimated as the aggregation of two video streams (768 kb/s in downlink and the same in uplink) together with a simultaneous data transfer need of approximately 512 kb/s in both directions (voice traffic is not considered in these data rate computations). This totals 1300 kb/s both in uplink and in downlink. A summary of these estimations is captured in Table 2.6.

In the traffic stop police operation, two police officers on routine traffic patrol observe a car running through a red traffic light at an intersection. The patrol signals to the control room through predefined data message that a pursuit is beginning. The camera in the patrol’s vehicle starts to record the offending vehicle, whose plate number is automatically used to query a remote database. The video is made available to the control room and authorized personnel connected through the police information system. As a response to the database query, the police patrol is informed that the car is not stolen and additional information about the registered owner. The offending vehicle stops. The camera is still recording and the video feed remains available on demand to the dispatch centre. The two police officers approach the car and note that there is only one driver. They request driver’s licence, but no documentation is provided. One of the officers observes what he believes to be the remains of drugs in the ashtray. He decides to search the suspect vehicle and contacts dispatch to request a backup unit. A second unit is so forwarded to the incident place, and a specific group call is created for the incident to share voice and data information. In this way, the second unit can access all the incident data (video and database) while on the move to the incident site. The supervisor and the second unit bring up the real-time video of the event in the control room and in the second unit vehicle. The backup unit arrives on scene. The suspect is ordered to get out of the vehicle. A white substance is found that appears to be cocaine. The suspect is put under arrest and a transport vehicle is dispatched from the control room upon request. The transport unit also joins the group call to access all information. After the arrest, one police officer takes the driver’s biometric sample and checks it against a database, which returns name, photo and specific information about the driver. He has been previously arrested by drug possession. The suspect is taken to jail by the transport unit. After the suspect has left, the police officers take images of the car and the drugs and complete all the steps and data forms needed to make the car to be taken by a tow truck and to complete the report of the incident. Therefore, when the driver arrives at jail, all data and forms are ready.

Based on the above description, the following main communications requirements are identified:

• Video to control room (camera of patrol vehicle) and database query (licence plate)
• Video feed available on demand (uplink to control room and downlink to backup vehicle near site)
• Access to databases (return with information and possible photo)

Like in the road accident scenario, considering that not all of these transmissions would be simultaneous, the peak use is also estimated as the aggregation of two video streams (incident video at 768 kb/s in uplink and video feed available in downlink) together with a simultaneous transfer need of approximately 512 kb/s associated with database queries and responses in both directions. This also totals 1300 kb/s in both uplink and downlink. A summary of these estimations is captured in Table 2.6.

In addition to the specific needs that may arise due to the occurrence of common incidents as those described previously, CEPT Report 199 [7] also characterizes what it could be the overall background traffic generated by a number of routine activities whose communications needs would be typically served by a single cell site. For the estimation of the background traffic, the applications and their data rates averages are taken from the LEWP/ETSI Matrix. Among the assumptions considered for the computation of the background load, it is considered that high-quality video feeds are not used. Moreover, the number of simultaneous applications is chosen independently of the size of the cell (which is clearly a rough approximation). Under these assumptions, the estimated load of a cell site sector due to routine traffic is provided in Table 2.6.

2.4.3 Large Emergency/Public Events

While recognizing that the size and preparation time for large emergencies and/or public events may vary a lot between distinct scenarios, two illustrative scenarios are discussed in the following [7]: the Royal Wedding in London in April 2011 and the London riots that occurred in August of the same year. The former scenario is a pre-planned event, while the latter is unplanned. The description and capacity estimates of both scenarios are developed considering how PPDR broadband communications might have been used had they been available.

The Royal Wedding can be considered as a high-profile, high-security event that draws vast crowds to get a close look and to be part of a historic occasion. Security operations however have to strike a balance between allowing the crowds to get close and have sight of the couple and keeping the royal family and other very important people (VIP) attending the ceremony safe. The security-optimized route planned for the royal procession varies from wide tree-lined roads to narrow streets overlooked by tall mainly office accommodation providing an opportunity for, for example, a terrorist attack. On the wedding day, the police and other security organizations perform their last-minute security checks and report to control. A crowd of well-wishers estimated to be around 1 million is lining the short wedding procession route between Westminster Abbey and Buckingham Palace. Covert and overt teams, totalling a force of 5000 officers, are deployed to mingle with the crowd and to look for suspicious activity. Trained officers and observers are stationed at key rooftop vantage points along the route. More than 80 VIPs are given close-protection bodyguards. A trained assassin or terrorist is not normally distinguishable from others in a crowded situation, being their behaviour what might alert security officials. In many cases, however, what is seen as suspicious behaviour turns out to be unrelated to a security threat. A judgement between acting too soon, and causing significant disruption and embarrassment to the proceedings, and acting too late is a fine line. Intelligence delivered through fast and good-quality communications is vital in such situations to help with the split-second decisions PPDR officials have to make.

Policing of the Royal Wedding route is managed in sectors. From a communications perspective, each sector is managed identically. Subject to how the radio infrastructure overlays the Royal Wedding route, it is considered that there is a strong possibility of one site having to carry the traffic from two adjacent sectors. The estimates below are applicable to one sector only and are in addition to the routine traffic that would be associated with general crowd control:

• One video stream from the Royal Coach.
• Two video streams from each side of the road from close-protection officers lining the route, that is four streams per sector in total.
• One high-resolution picture sent per minute from the helicopter to the coach and each of the bronze commanders managing each section. Frequency of updates would increase in the event of an incident.
• Selected still pictures from the helicopter and fixed cameras along the route would be sent to the two covert teams mingling with the crowd as and when felt necessary.
• The 60 officers of the two covert teams in each sector provide GPS-based location updates every 5 s.

Therefore, this scenario considers up to five simultaneous active cameras in total, four along the path and one on the coach. On this basis, capacity estimates are captured in Table 2.7, totalling around 5 Mb/s in uplink without accounting for other routine communications that could take place simultaneously in the surroundings of the Royal Wedding parade and so be served from the same cell site. Of note is that the estimates in Ref. [7] are for communications using a permanent wide area network. Additional capacity deployed on-site may also be provided by other means such as wireless local area networks. This additional capacity could be used for local data exchanges between responders on the site and for specific applications (e.g. if a robot is deployed, the necessary command and control links would be provided locally). This additional local capacity is not accounted in the capacity assessment of the Royal Wedding scenario.

The second analysed large event scenario is based on the riots occurred in London in August 2011. The rioting was triggered by a fatal shooting of a 29-year-old man by police. The riots started in the Tottenham area of London where the shooting occurred and then rapidly spread to neighbouring areas around Tottenham and areas further afield both within in London and outside of London. Rioting occurred over 4 consecutive days. In this kind of scenarios, a typical Bronze commander (i.e. level of management corresponding to the operational level within the typical command structure hierarchy – see Chapter 1) would manage locally up to 300 police officers. Due to the number of rioting focal points in close proximity to each other, two sub-Bronze commanders were deployed, one for each rioting focal point reporting to a common Bronze commander. The geographic spread and scale of rioting in London required 16 000 additional police officers being drafted in from surrounding forces into London to assist the Metropolitan police contain the situation (through an arrangement known as mutual aid). In this kind of scenarios, the immediate issue for police is the protection of the public and property. Identifying and arresting the perpetrators of criminality would not be an immediate priority. Analysis of photographs and video captured at the time would be used post riots to identify culprits for later questioning.

The main communications requirements for this unplanned emergency can be summarized as below:

• Two high-quality video streams, one from each sub-Bronze command area, being fed back to Gold and Silver command. The video would be used to help in managing the situation and would be recorded remotely for evidential purposes.
• Bronze and sub-Bronze commanders receive regular GPS-based location updates of the officers under their command.
• Interactive maps pushed to officers on the ground to help them to navigate to where they needed to be and to show which areas/streets they should avoid. Particularly important as many of the officers deployed to contain and quell the rioting were not familiar with the area in which they were working.
• An infrared video feed from a helicopter fed to firefighters on the ground to help them tactically fight large fires.
• A video feed from a helicopter fed back to Gold and Silver command.
• Numerous still pictures captured by police officers transmitted back to Gold and Silver command to help manage the situation and to be recorded remotely for evidential purposes.

The above communications needs exclude ambulance, fire (except for the downlink infrared video feed) and routine traffic in the surrounding area. On this basis, capacity estimates are captured in Table 2.7, totalling around 4 Mb/s in downlink and 1.8 Mb/s in uplink. As in the Royal Wedding scenario, the estimates in Table 2.7 are for communications using the permanent wide area network, thus not considering additional on-site capacity that may be provided by other means such as wireless local area networks and used for local data exchanges between responders on the site or for specific applications.

2.4.4 Disaster Scenarios

In unplanned mass events and major incidents, especially natural disasters where the location and requirements are not known in advance, significantly higher communications needs at very short notice are likely to occur. A detailed analysis of the broadband communications needs in four major incidents has been addressed by NPSTC [3] as part of an assessment conducted to identify PPDR spectrum and technology requirements in the United States for the 10-year period, from 2012 to 2022. The disaster scenarios covered are:

• Hurricane. Scenario based on Hurricane Charley, which hit the Central Florida area on 13 August 2004. The operations characterized focus on the collapse of an apartment complex building with dozens of injured and trapped citizens. Another 500 residents in the area needed to be evacuated from damaged buildings. There were reports of a natural gas leak near the scene, and law enforcement agencies were notified of looters moving into the area as night fell. EMS and fire/rescue agencies arrived at the scene, established an incident command system and started an assessment of damage and injuries. Law enforcement units arrived and started to secure the area and move crowds of displaced citizens out of the danger zone to a common holding area. The incident command immediately assigned crews to start searching the collapsed apartment building and assigned additional crews to locate and secure the broken gas line and to begin treating injured persons. EMS personnel were organizing the treatment of multiple personnel via use of the area’s mass casualty incident plan. As the scope of the incident was fully identified, the incident command requested additional units to respond to assist those already on scene. A secondary staging area was identified several blocks from the incident where incoming fire trucks and ambulances would park until they were given a specific assignment and were called in to the scene. The analysis of the incident focuses on the operations conducted in an area of 1 square mile, involving around 220 responders and 60 vehicles.
• Chemical plant explosion. Scenario based on a chemical plant explosion occurred in the large industrial corridor between the City of Houston and the City of Pasadena, in Texas, along the Houston Ship Channel. A large explosion and fire were reported along with the presence of a chemical gas cloud moving across an interstate highway. Dozens of workers at the chemical plant were reported to be injured or missing. The cause of the explosion was not known at the beginning, but it was later revealed that an employee had been fired several days earlier and made threats during his departure. Fire and EMS personnel reported they would arrive near the scene and set up an incident command post approximately 2 miles upwind from the incident. Additional units would be sent directly to the scene to meet with plant officials and to determine the extent of the incident. Law enforcement units were arriving at the command post, while other units were sealing off the area and starting to evacuate nearby businesses in the ‘safe zone’. Law enforcement personnel were also working in conjunction with Department of Transportation staff to close the interstate in the area of the explosion. Additional fire and EMS personnel were deployed directly to the scene in protective gear to locate and remove injured workers and to ensure a complete evacuation of the staff. Hazmat crews were on scene performing a detailed assessment of the damage that triggered the chemical cloud. Specialized sensors were used to test the level of toxicity of the fumes. A representative from the chemical plant was also sent to the command post to provide assistance in the decision-making process. The incident involves 200 responders and 50 vehicles, deployed across an area of 5 square miles.
• Major wild land fire. Scenario centred on a large wild land fire that occurred in 2003 in Southern California called ‘The Old Fire’. This fire burned an area of more than 35 square miles while destroying 993 homes and causing six fatalities. Fanned by high winds and fuelled by abundant dried vegetation, this incident grew quickly and taxed the ability of local emergency officials to manage evacuations and road closures ahead of the fast-moving firestorm. At the incident peak, more than 1000 vehicles were on scene providing firefighting, security and support functions. Unlike the other three disaster incidents considered by NPSTC in which the peak activity period occurred in the first 90 min, this wild land fire incident experienced a peak activity period at around the 4-h mark. Fire and rescue units would arrive in the area of the reported fire and immediately conduct an assessment to determine the size of the fire, how quickly it was spreading, how quickly it was growing in size and intensity, what exposures were immediately threatened, and what exposures were soon to be threatened. They would make rapid decisions regarding the need for additional resources and start to implement an attack strategy. Law enforcement units would arrive at the command post and would be briefed on which areas and neighbourhoods were in immediate danger. Law enforcement representatives would start directing the closure of certain roadways and initiate evacuation of targeted neighbourhoods. The incident involves over 2000 responders and 1000 vehicles, deployed across an area of 35 square miles.
• Toxic gas leak. This scenario was patterned after a report of a toxic gas leak in a large public assembly building near the National Mall in Washington, DC. While this type of incident has not actually occurred in the DC metro area, it is in their domestic security threat profile, and public safety response options have been practiced. Reports to the emergency call service (i.e. 911) indicate that dozens of citizens have collapsed inside the building, while hundreds of others are fleeing out into the streets. Citizens in the area are flooding 911 service with calls reporting some type of unknown emergency is occurring at the building. Additional calls are coming from inside the building reporting the location of downed persons. Responding units are receiving conflicting information on the type and extent of the emergency. PPDR units from multiple jurisdictions would arrive on the scene almost simultaneously given the nature of compact and overlapping jurisdictions and the distributed way in which the emergency would be reported. The first wave of units has arrived before any clear operational picture has been established. Fire, EMS and law enforcement representatives would establish an incident command post a safe distance from the scene of the emergency. Fire personnel in protective gear would move directly to the scene to start removing injured civilians. Hazmat personnel would be conducting a rapid assessment of the situation while also using sensor sniffer technology to identify the type of chemical involved. Law enforcement personnel would be working to seal off the area, preventing additional access by citizens into the danger area. Law enforcement personnel would also be interviewing those who had fled the building in an attempt to determine what happened. EMS personnel would be setting up triage and treatment areas, requesting additional transport ambulances and alerting area hospitals of the incident. The incident involves over 300 responders and more than 120 vehicles in 1 square mile area.

The list of applications identified as critical by the PPDR agencies was very similar across the four types of disaster scenarios. Remarkably, all agencies reported that access to GIS files was critical as well as the need to access real-time video feeds from the incident scene back to the incident commander. The list of data applications identified as being essential to emergency response and management was²:

• Access to third-party video/cameras (private and governmental)
• Automatic location (both vehicle and personnel location systems)
• Biomedical telemetry (patient and firefighter)
• GIS
• Incident command post-video conferencing
• Incident command white board
• Message and file transfer
• Mobile data computers application usage
• Patient/evacuee/deceased tracking
• Sensor technology
• Vehicle telemetry
• Video (aerial video feed, vehicle-mounted video and helmet camera video)
• Voice over IP cell phone access
• Weather tracking

Based on the reference values established for the peak throughput, session duration and sessions per hour to characterize the usage of each application (see Table 2.5), the number of users for each application was determined for each of the four incidents. Based on this characterization, the capacity requirements for video and data applications traffic rate estimated to serve PPDR operational needs in the four scenarios are summarized in Table 2.8, which provides the averaged traffic generated by all users during the busy hour both in uplink and downlink along with the five most capacity demanding applications in each scenario. The applications and usage considered in the NPSTC analysis reflect the applications that are used while personnel are physically located at incident command and while the incident is at its peak communications activity, being so representative of the busy hour usage, specifically within the first 2 h of units arriving on scene. As shown in the table, the highest aggregated traffic is originated within the wildfire response (15.2 Mb/s in downlink), with around 75% of the traffic associated with incident video.