Chapter 6
1. For gurāb see Fahmy (1966), 132–134 and Christides (1995), 111–121. For the Maratha gurāb, see Apte (1973), 134, plate 10 and Deloche (1987), 167, 178.
2. See for example, Sentence (1981), 1–9; Prins (1982), 85–100; Kentley (1985), 303–317; Varadarajan (1995), 173–178; Varadarajan (1998).
3. For the lashed-lug tradition, see Manguin (1985), 319–343; Manguin (1989), 201–202.
4. James Hornell (1939), Figs 2, 3, 4, 429–431; James Hornell (1940), 133; James Hornell (1944), 3–18; 169–185.
5. See Hornell (1945a), 6–7. Hornell (1946), 254–256; Hornell (1923), 148–152, 157–161, 183–185, 226–228.
6. Hornell (1937), Part II, 42. It has not been possible to refer to the published article. The citation relates to a pre-publication script sent to Hornell for correction, which this author found among the original papers of Hornell in the Hadden Collection, Central Library, University of Cambridge.
7. Hornell (1945a), 15, Fig. 9. A description, circa 1924, reads thus: ‘In this model the outrigger is attached by one pole only instead of two, as in Inv. 1924–580. This type is also used at Kilakarai and the outrigger is so arranged as to be easily shifted from side to side when necessary. In both models, the canoes are dugouts to each side of which a narrow vertical wash-strake has been added. The mast, which carries a large lugsail, is stayed fore and aft, while the halyard is made fast to the pole of the outrigger so as to form a shifting stay. Approximate dimensions: Length of canoe, 36 ft; length of float, 15 ft, distance of float from canoe, 18 ft.′ Imperial Science Museum, London; Library, Label Inv.1924, 579. Details from the same source relating to a two-boom Kilakarai outrigger reads as follows:’ This outrigger canoe represents a type used by the fishermen of Kilakarai, on the south east coast of India, for their pearl and chank-shell fisheries off the north west coast of Ceylon. The outrigger would appear to have been derived from that of the typical outrigger canoes of Ceylon, but in these Indian canoes it is not permanently fixed on one side as in the Ceylon vessels, but so arranged that it an be quickly shifted from side to side as the vessel tacks. In these canoes, therefore, the bow and stern are permanently differentiated and in consequence a curved rudder is fitted to the stern. Approximate dimensions: Length of canoe, 36 ft; length of float, 18 ft; distance of float from canoe, 15 ft. Ibid. Inv.1924, 580. Also see Neyrit, 1974, 260–261.
8. An earlier description, scripted circa 1924, is appended: ‘This model represents a type of boat in use on the Madras coast at Tirupalakudi in Palk Bay. In it, stability under sail is obtained by the use of a balance-board of Palmyra wood, which can be loaded on the weather side with one or more of the crew and which can also be run out further on the weather side so as to give additional leverage when required. Some of these boats are dugouts, others are carvel-built.’ Imperial Science Museum, London, Library, Label, Inv.1924, 581.
9. In view of the present-day confusion between vallam and vattā, it would be important to refer to a description of the Adirampattinam balance-board craft, circa 1924, which reads thus: ‘Boats of this type are used at Adirampattinam where shallow water extends for a long distance out to sea. In consequence, two quartersteering boards are fitted instead of a rudder and these, the steersman, who sits on the aftermost thwart, manipulates with his feet. A lee-board is never shifted from its central position. The boats are dugouts to which are sewn wash-strakes about 9 inches deep … The mast which is stayed fore and aft and also to the balance-board, carries a large standing lug-sail.’ Imperial Science Museum, London, Library, Label, Inv.1924–582; Photo. 518/54.
10. The Indo-Norwegian Project, with its headquarters at Cochin, was initiated on 17 October 1952 and came to an end on 31 March 1972. The Integrated Fisheries Project replaced it on 1 April 1972. The fact that traits such as practice of frame-first carpentry and usage of the scrieve board call for an explanation is passed over by the Kentley team. See Eric Kentley et al. (2000), 146–147. Although the Tamil manuscript, Kappal Sattiram, a manual on shipbuilding, was compiled at Tarangambādi (Tranquebar) in 1698, it is not clear to what extent traditional Indian methods may have been influenced by European practices. See Panikkar and Srinivasan (1973), 16.
11. Fernando (1977), n.23, p. 114; also see McPherson (1993), 170. The Mukuvars, who had also been converted by the Portuguese, hailed essentially from the Malabar Coast. Fernando (1977), n.17, p. 9.
12. In the present times, there is no tradition of the fashioning of dugouts in Tamil Nadu. These are all acquired from Kerala. This is also borne out in the description of the Tamil Nadu tōni by Rajamanikam, Jayakumar (1991, III, 14).
13. See plates IV and V in Rajamanickam and Arul Raj (1991) (II).
14. Hornell notes that long lining, the positioning in the sea of long lines set with a large number of baited hooks, is not practised along the Coromandel Coast, but was highly developed on the west coast, particularly along the Malabar coast. Hornell (1924), Part 1, 78.
15. Hornell describes how fishing is undertaken with the mada valai fishing net. Hornell (1924), Part 1, 61–65. According to him, two four-log and two three-log catamarans are used in mada valai fishing. lbid., 64.
16. See the copy of note sent from Assistant Inspector of Fisheries, Krishnapatam to the Assistant Director of Fisheries (Inland) Madras, dated 26.8.1932, in Haddon Collection, Envelope 10049, Central Library, University of Cambridge (unpublished); Hornell (1924), Part 1, 76–78, Hornell (1946), 65–67.
17. Hornell (1946), 67. Circa 1924, a lee-board was mounted on each side of the vessel. Imperial Science Museum, London, Library, Vizagapatam Catamaram, Label Inv. 1924–575.
18. The method of construction is described in Hornell (1946), 67.
19. Tietze, U. (1985), 32–33. The pātiā has been documented by Varadarajan, Bhattacharya, see Report, Chapter 13. The pātiā, in fact, has the reverse clinker element. It has not been possible to verify the clinker element in the danga as described by Tietze.
20. Paris noted circa 1843 that the only Bengal craft, which was not stapled was the cargo carrier with clinker-laid strakes, the Patile, but even among these, there were a few variants which were stapled. Paris (1843), 43.
21. Filgueiras (1975), 59. Cf. Cortesão (1975), 238–239, 241, 244–245.