The basic principles of camerawork
There are a number of basic visual conventions used by the majority of cameramen operating broadcast camera/recorders. Many of these standard camera techniques were developed in the early part of the twentieth century when the first film makers had to experiment and invent the grammar of editing, shot size and the variety of camera movements that are now standard. The ability to find ways of shooting subjects and then editing the shots together without distracting the audience was learnt by the commercial cinema over a number of years. The guiding concept was the need to persuade the audience that they were watching continuous action in ‘real’ time. This required the mechanics of film making to be hidden from the audience; that is to be invisible. Invisible technique places the emphasis on the content of the shot rather than production technique in order to achieve a seamless flow of images directing the viewers’ attention to the narrative. It allows shot change to be unobtrusive and directs attention to what is contained within the frame and to smoothly move the camera to a new viewpoint without distracting the audience.
Alternative technique
There are alternative conventions of presentation which intentionally draw attention to the means of production. The production methods and camera movements are emphasized in order to simulate the realism of the unrehearsed shot or to remind the audience that they are watching a piece of fiction. Similar to news coverage, it appears as if the camerawork is surprised by the action (see Standard camerawork, page 128). In general, television production has adopted the ‘Hollywood’ model of invisible technique.
A coherent technique
The point of this brief history of camerawork is rather than simply committing to memory a list of do’s and don’ts about TV camerawork it is better for you to understand why these visual conventions exist. There is a coherent technique behind most TV camerawork. The way a shot is framed up, the way a zoom is carried out, the amount of headroom you give to a certain size of shot is not simply a matter of personal taste, although that often affects shot composition, it is also a product of 90 odd years of telling a story in pictures. The development of invisible technique created the majority of these visual conventions. Knowing why a camerawork convention exists is preferable to simply committing to memory a string of instructions. You can then apply the principles of invisible technique whenever you meet up with a new production requirement.
The basic aims of television camerawork can be summarized as:
■ to produce a technically acceptable picture (e.g. correct exposure, white balance, in focus, etc.);
■ to provide a shot that is relevant to the story or event in a style that is suitable for the genre;
■ to provide a shot that will hold the audience’s attention (e.g. by the appropriate use of framing, camera movement, composition, lighting, etc.);
■ to provide shots that can be cut together (see Editing topics, pages 144–71).
The aim of invisible technique is to convince the audience that they are watching a continuous event in ‘real’ time:
■ Shots are structured to allow the audience to understand the space, time and logic of the action.
■ Each shot follows the line of action to maintain consistent screen direction so that the geography of the action is completely intelligible (e.g. camera positions on a football match).
■ Unobtrusive camera movement and shot change directs the audience to the content of the production rather than the mechanics of film/television production.
■ Invisible technique creates the illusion that distinct, separate shots (possibly recorded out of sequence and at different times) form part of a continuous event being witnessed by the audience.
This is achieved by:
■ unobtrusive intercutting (see Editing topics, pages 144–71);
■ camera movement motivated by action or dialogue (see Camera movement, page 120);
■ camera movement synchronized with action;
■ continuity of performance, lighting, atmosphere and action.
As demonstrated in most holiday and wedding home movies, many people new to camerawork assume that a video of an event is simply shooting a collection of ‘pretty’ or informative images. It is only later when they view the unedited material that they may begin to understand that their collection of individual shots do not flow together and communicate the points they were hoping to make. Watching a sequence of random and erratic images soon becomes tedious and visually distracting if the elementary principle, i.e. that when viewed each shot is connected with the preceding and succeeding shot, is forgotten or ignored. Good camerawork, as well as providing visually and technically acceptable pictures, is constantly thinking in shot structures. In broadcasting, each shot must help to advance the points being communicated. The collection of shots produced on location will be edited together and paired down to essentials. The editor can only do so much (see What the editor requires, page 164) with the material the cameraman provides. Essentially the cameraman (or, if present, the director) must impose an elementary structure to the material shot.
■ General to the particular: Much of camera/recorder location work will not be scripted. There may be a rough treatment outlined by the presenter or a written brief on what the item should cover but an interview may open up new aspects of the story. Without pre-planning or a shot list, camera technique will often revert to tried and trusted formulas. Telling a story in pictures is as old as the first efforts in film making. A safe rule-of-thumb is to move from the general to the particular – from wide shot to close-up. Use a general view (GV) to show relationships and to set the scene and then make the important points with the detail of close-ups. There must be a reason in editing to change shot and the cameraman has to provide a diversity of material to provide a cutting point.
■ Record of an event: Information shots are specific. They refer to a unique event – the wreckage of a car crash, someone scoring a goal, a political speech. They are often non-repeatable. The crashed car is towed away, the politician moves on. The topicality of an event means that the camera technique must be precise and reliable, responding to the event with quick reflexes. There is often no opportunity for retakes.
■ Interpretative shots: Interpretative or decorative shots are nonspecific. They are often shot simply to give visual padding to the story. A typical example is a shot of an interviewee walking in a location before an interview. This shot allows the dubbed voice-over to identify who the interviewee is and possibly their attitude to the subject. The shot needs to be long enough to allow information that is not featured in the interview to be added as a voice-over. The interviewee leaves frame at the end of the shot to provide a cutting point to the interview.
■ When shooting an event or activity, have a rough mental outline of how the shots could be cut together and provide a mixture of changes in camera angle, size of shot and camera movement.
■ Change of shot must be substantial, either in camera position or in shot size.
■ Avoid too restricted a structure in type of shot – give some flexibility to the editor to reduce or expand the running time (e.g. do not stay on the same size shot of a speaker for the whole of his conference speech. Provide audience cutaways after the speech.)
■ Provide some type of establishing shot and some general views (GVs) that may be useful in a context other than the immediate sequence.
■ Provide the editor with a higher proportion of static shots to camera movement. It is difficult to cut between pans and zooms until they steady to a static frame and hold.
■ For news, keep camera movement short with a greater proportion of small significant moves that reveal new (essential) information. Avoid long inconsequential pans and zooms.
■ When shooting unrehearsed events, steady the shot as soon as possible and avoid a sequence of rapid, very brief shots.
■ Get the ‘safe’ shot before attempting the ambitious development.
■ Try to find relevant but non-specific shots so that voice-over information (to set the scene or the report) can be dubbed on after the script has been prepared.
■ In general, wide shots require a longer viewing time than big close-ups.
One of the skills required in camerawork is the ability to provide shots that hold the interest and attention of the audience. Although the content of the shot such as a house, animal or personality may be the initial reason why a viewer’s interest is captured by an image, the method of presentation, the composition of the shot, is also a vital factor in sustaining that interest.
What is composition?
Composition is the principal way of making clear the priorities of a shot. It emphasizes the main subject and eliminates or subdues competing elements of visual interest. There must be a reason for framing up any shot; good composition enables that reason to be transmitted to the viewer. Good visual communication is achieved by good composition.
‘I see what you mean!’
There is usually a reason why a shot is recorded on tape or film. The purpose may be simply to record an event or the image may play an important part in expressing a complex idea. Whatever the reasons that initiate the shot, the cameraman should have a clear understanding of the purpose behind the shot.
After establishing why the shot is required, and usually this will be deduced purely from experience of the shot structure of the programme format, the cameraman will position the camera, adjust the lens angle, framing and focus. All four activities (as well as knowledge of programme formats) rely on an understanding of the visual design elements available to compose a shot within the standard television framing conventions. Effective picture making is the ability to manipulate the lens position and the lens angle within a particular programme context.
Primary decisions
The seven primary decisions to be made when setting up a shot are: camera angle, lens angle, camera distance, camera height, frame, subject in focus and depth of field. For example, a square-on shot of a block of flats ((a) opposite), can have more visual impact if the camera is repositioned to shoot the building obliquely ((b) opposite). Shooting two sides of a subject creates a more interesting dynamic arrangement of horizontal lines. This is changing the camera angle. The convergence of the horizontal lines can be emphasized by choosing the widest angle of the zoom, and repositioning the camera low and close to the subject. This is changing lens angle, camera distance and camera height. How the building is now framed, how much of the structure is within the depth of field of the chosen aperture, and which part of the building is chosen to be in focus will all affect the visual design of the shot. A building can have a radically different appearance by choosing how to employ the seven basic camera parameters. Lighting is another powerful design element in shot composition (see pages 172–85).
Physically changing the lens position and altering the lens angle controls the appearance and the information contained in a shot. One essential skill required by a cameraman is the ability to visualize a shot from a lens angle in any position in space without the need to move the camera to that position in order to discover its visual potential.
Composition summary
A shot is composed to emphasize the most important subject in the frame by placement using control of background, lens angle, height, focus, shot size, movement, etc. The cameraman makes certain that the eye is attracted to that part of the frame that is significant and seeks to avoid the main subject conflicting with other visual elements in the frame. Here is a partial checklist of the do’s and don’ts of composition:
■ The camera converts three dimensions into two dimensions. Try to compensate for the loss of the third dimension by looking for ways to represent depth in the composition.
■ Avoid dividing the frame into separated areas by strong vertical and horizontal elements unless this is a specific required effect.
■ Check the overall image, particularly background details (e.g. no chimneys/posts growing out of foreground subjects’ heads).
■ Keep important action away from the edge of the frame, but avoid repeating square-on, symmetrical eye-level centre-of-frame shots.
■ Offset the dominant interest and balance this with a less important element.
■ Fill the frame if possible with interest and avoid large plain areas that are there simply because of the aspect ratio of the screen. If necessary, mask off part of the frame with a feature in the shot to give a more interesting composition.
■ Emphasize the most important element in the frame by its position using control of background, lens angle, height, focus, shot size, movement, etc. Make certain that the eye is attracted to the part of the frame that is significant and avoid conflict with other elements in the frame.
■ Selective focus can control the composition. Pulling focus from one plane to another directs attention without reframing.
■ Attempt some visual mystery or surprise but the stronger the visual impact the more sparingly it should be used. Repeated zooming results in loss of impact and interest.
Rule of thirds
4:3 aspect ratio
16:9 aspect ratio
The rule of thirds proposes that an attractive balance can be achieved by placing the main subject on one of the intersections of two equally spaced lines horizontally in the frame and two lines equally spaced in the vertical.
Standard shot sizes
Because so much of television programming involves people talking, a number of standard shot sizes have evolved centred on the human body. In general, these shot sizes avoid cutting people at natural joints of the body such as neck, elbows, knees. Normal interview shots include (see figures opposite):
■ CU (close-up): Bottom of frame cuts where the knot of tie would be.
■ MCU (medium close-up): Bottom of the frame cuts where the top of a breast pocket of a jacket would be.
■ MS (medium shot): Bottom of frame cuts at the waist.
Other standard shot descriptions are:-
■ BCU (big close-up): The whole face fills the screen. Top of frame cuts the forehead. Bottom of the frame cuts the edge of chin avoiding any part of the mouth going out of frame (rarely used in interviews).
■ LS (long shot): The long shot includes the whole figure.
■ WS (wide shot): A wide shot includes the figure in a landscape or setting.
■ O/S 2s (over-the-shoulder 2-shot): Looking over the shoulder of a foreground figure framing part of the head and shoulders to another participant.
■ 2-shot, 3-shot, etc.: Identifies the number of people in frame composed in different configurations.
Closed frame
One of the early Hollywood conventions was to compose the shot so that it contained the action within the frame and then by cutting, followed the action in distinct, complete shots. Each shot was self-contained and refers to only what is seen and shuts out or excludes anything outside of the frame. This is the closed frame technique and is structured to keep the attention only on the information that is contained in the shot. If there is any significant reference to a subject outside of the frame, then there is an additional shot to cover the referred subject. This convention is still followed in many different types of programme format. For example, in a television cooking demonstration, the demonstrator in medium close-up (MCU) may refer to some ingredient they are about to use which is outside the frame. Either the MCU is immediately loosened to reveal the ingredient or there is a need to record a cutaway shot of the ingredient later.
The open frame
The open frame convention allows action to move in and out of the frame. An example would be a character in a hallway who would be held on screen whilst in dialogue with someone who is moving in and out of frame entering and leaving various rooms which are unseen. Their movement while they are out of frame is implied and not cut to as separate shots. The open frame does not disguise the fact that the shot is only a partial viewpoint of a much larger environment. This convention considers that it is not necessary for the audience to see the reality beyond the shot in order to be convinced that it exists.
BCU (big close-up) Whole face fills screen. Top of frame cuts forehead. Bottom of frame cuts chin
CU (close-up) Bottom of frame cuts where knot of tie would be
MCU (medium close-up) Bottom of frame cuts where top of breast pocket of a jacket would be
MS (medium shot) Bottom of frame cuts at the waist
LS (long shot) Long shot includes whole figure
WS (wide shot) Wide shot includes figure in a landscape or setting
Note: Precise framing conventions for these standard shot descriptions vary with directors and cameramen. One person’s MCU is another person’s MS. Check that your understanding of the position of the bottom frame line on any of these shots shares the same size convention for each description as the director with whom you are working.
With profile shots, where people are looking out of frame, give additional space in the direction of their gaze for ‘looking room’. Similarly when someone is walking across frame, give more space in front of them than behind.
Give consistent headroom for the same sized shots decreasing the amount with CUs and BCUs. Always cut the top of the head rather than the chin in extreme close up.
The eyes are the centre of attention in shots of faces. A good rule-of-thumb is to place them one third from the top of the frame.
The composition of a shot is affected by the distance of the camera from the subject and the lens angle that is used. This will make a difference to the size relationships within the frame. The size relationship of objects in a field of view is known as the perspective of mass. Put simply, the closer an object is to us, the larger it will appear and vice versa. The image of an object doubles in size whenever its distance is halved. This is a simple fact of geometric optics and it applies to a camera as it does to the eye. Adjusting the camera distance and the lens angle can provide the size relationships required for a composition.
The wide-angle/narrow-angle effect
Size relationships or the perspective of mass can be confused with the wide-angle effect and the narrow-angle effect. To increase the size of a background figure in relation to a foreground figure it is common practice to reposition the camera back and zoom in to return to the original framing (see figure at top of page 119). The size relationships have now altered. It is not the narrower angle that produced this effect but the increased distance from the camera. By moving away from the two figures we have altered the ratio between lens and first figure and lens and second figure. It is a much smaller ratio and therefore the difference in size between the two of them is now not so great. When we zoom in and revert to the original full frame for foreground figure we keep the new size relationships that have been formed by camera distance. The two figures appear to be closer in size. Choosing which combination of camera distance and lens angle is used therefore has a significant effect on the depiction of space within a shot.
■ Wide-angle effect: A wide-angle lens working close to the main subject allows more of the foreground subject to be in frame but increases the ratio between foreground and background object size. It is this combination that produces distortion when used too close to the face (a ‘Pinocchio’ nose). A wide-angle zoom is very useful in confined surroundings, especially if attempting to interview someone in a crowd of journalists and photographers. By being close to the interviewee, masking by other people (such as fellow photographers) is prevented as there is insufficient room between lens and subject.
■ Narrow-angle effect: A part of our perception of depth depends on judging size relationships. The smaller we perceive a known object, the further we judge it to be from us. The size relationships produced by a very narrow-angle lens at a distance from the subject produces the illusion of squeezing the space between equal size figures. The camera distance from the subject produces the size relationships whilst the long focal length lens provides the magnification of the foreground and background. The space between the subjects in frame appears to be condensed. A common example is shooting a crowded pavement from a great distance on a long lens. The effect is that all people moving towards camera appear to be equal size and the time taken for them to change size, as they appear to be approaching the lens, appears to be abnormal.
Shot A
Shot B
In Shot A the camera is close to the presenter. In Shot B, to make the background subject (Big Ben) more dominant, the camera has moved back and zoomed in to match the presenter’s size in Shot A.
The ‘internal space’ has been rearranged by changing the camera distance to presenter and it now appears as if the subject and the clock are much closer together. This creates a potential problem because it is very easy for members of the public to walk unwittingly between lens and presenter when working on a long lens. There will be a large gap between camera and presenter (>6 m) for Shot B.
Note: Lenses on DV format cameras may not have the focal length marked and the operator must always be aware of which part of the zoom range is selected and be able to recognize the visual effect of the chosen combination of camera distance/focal length. Do not just simply set up the camera from any viewpoint and zoom in to find the required framing. Think about how much depth you require in that specific shot and select the appropriate camera distance and adjust the zoom accordingly.
Natural perspective
A shot can be set up with the camera at any distance from the subject and by varying the lens angle of the zoom the required framing can be achieved. But which lens angle will create natural perspective? Which combination of lens angle and camera distance most closely resembles human perception if the camera was replaced by an observer at the same point as the lens? The usual attempt to answer this question starts with the concept of the displayed image as a ‘window in the wall’. The viewer looks through the ‘window’ and sees precisely the same scene as depicted by the lens angle/camera distance image. In practical everyday programme production the quest for ‘natural perspective’ is not achievable because it depends on two unknown factors. The correct viewing distance for natural perspective depends on the size of image displayed and the viewing distance of that image. This combination will vary between viewer and viewer although averages could be deduced based on average size of TV set and average size of sitting rooms.
The screen size of the reproduced image (see lower figure on page 119), will increase proportionally to the viewing distance if the original perspective experienced by the observer at distance ‘z’ from the subject is to be duplicated. The viewing distance ‘z’ of screen A is too close to reproduce a ‘natural’ perspective and would simulate a ‘wide-angle’ look at that viewing distance. Screen B would simulate a ‘narrow-angle’ viewpoint because the screen size is too small for viewing distance ‘z’.
Invisible movement
There is the paradox of creating camera movement to provide visual excitement or visual change whilst attempting to make the movement ‘invisible’. Invisible in the sense that the aim of the technique is to avoid the audience’s attention switching from the programme content to the camerawork. This is achieved when camera movement matches the movement of the action and good composition is maintained throughout the move. The intention is to emphasize subject–picture content, rather than technique. Intrusive and conspicuous camera movements are often used for specific dramatic or stylistic reasons (e.g. pop promotions), but the majority of programme formats work on the premise that the methods of programme production should remain hidden or invisible.
Motivation
A camera move is usually prompted either:
■ to add visual interest;
■ to express excitement, increase tension or curiosity;
■ to provide a new main subject of interest;
■ to provide a change of viewpoint.
A camera move is therefore a visual development that provides new information or creates atmosphere or mood. If the opening and closing frames of a move, such as a zoom in, are the only images that are considered important, then it is probably better to use a cut to change shot rather than a camera move.
Match the movement to the mood or action
Two basic conventions controlling camera movement are, first, to match the movement to the action so that the camera move is motivated by the action and is controlled in speed, timing and degree by action. Second, there is a need to maintain good composition throughout the move. A camera move should provide new visual interest and there should be no ‘dead’ area between the first and end image of the movement.
When to reframe
There are broadly two types of camera movement: functional (the camera is moved to keep the subject in frame) and decorative (the camera is moved to provide variety and interest or to explain an idea). A common dilemma is when to reframe a subject who is swaying in and out of reasonable framing. The shot may be too tight for someone who can only talk when they move or they may make big hand movements to emphasize a point. The solution is to loosen off the shot. It is seldom a good idea to constantly pan to keep someone in frame as inevitably you will be ‘wrong-footed’ and compensate for an anticipated movement that does not happen.
Movement within the shot and lens angle
A small movement in a close-up can be the equivalent of a big movement in long shot. A full figure, three pace walk towards a wide-angle lens will create a much bigger change in size than the equivalent full figure walk towards a 25° lens. The ‘internal space’ of the lens in use becomes a critical consideration when staging action for the camera.
Basic advice for movement
■ Try to disguise camera movement by synchronizing with subject movement. Start and stop the movement at the same time as the subject.
■ When zooming, hold one side of the frame static as a ‘pivot point’ rather than zooming in to the centre of the frame.
■ Try to find a reason to motivate the zoom and to disguise the zoom. Use a combination of pan and zoom.
■ Panning and zooming are done to show relationships. If the beginning of the shot and the end of the shot are interesting but the middle section is not, it is better to cut between the start of the shot and the end frame rather than to pan or to zoom. Begin and end on a point of interest when panning. If the end of the shot is uninteresting why pan to it? Have a reason for drawing attention to the final image of a pan.
■ Pace the pan so that the viewer can see what the camera is panning over. Hold the frame at the beginning and end of the pan.
■ Use dominant lines or contours to pan across or along. Find some subject movement to motivate the pan.
■ When panning movement, leave space in the frame in the direction the subject is moving.
The choice of lens angle and resulting composition should not be accidental unless there is no alternative camera position. The internal space of a shot often underlines the emotional quality of the scene. ‘Normal’ perspective for establishing shots is often used where the intention is to plainly and straightforwardly describe the locale. A condensed or an expanded space on the other hand may help to suggest the mood or atmosphere of the action. A long lens positioned at a distance from a cramped interior will heighten the claustrophobia of the setting. Subject size ratios will be evened out from foreground to background and movement to and away from camera will show no significant change in size and therefore give a subjective impression that no distance has been traversed. A wide-angle lens close to the subject will increase space, emphasize movement and, depending on shot content, emphasize convergence of line and accentuate the relative size of same size figures at different distances from the lens.
Control of background
Compositional priority can be given to a foreground subject by limiting the depth of field by ND (neutral density) filter or shutter but the greatest control is by choice of camera position, lens angle, camera distance and foreground subject position. Consideration must also be given to how the shot will be intercut and often a matching background of similar tonal range, colour and contrast has to be chosen to avoid a mismatch when intercutting. Too large a tonal difference between intercut backgrounds will result in obtrusive and very visible cuts. Visual continuity of elements such as direction of light, similar zones of focus and the continuity of background movement (e.g. crowds, traffic, etc.) in intercut shots have also to be checked.
The subjective influence of camera height
Lens height will also control the way the audience identifies with the subject. Moving the horizon down below a person makes them more dominant because the viewer is forced to adopt a lower eyeline viewpoint. We are in the size relationship of children looking up to adults. A low lens height may also de-emphasize floor or ground level detail because we are looking along at ground level and reducing or eliminating indications of ground space between objects. This concentrates the viewer’s interest on the vertical subjects. A high position lens height has the reverse effect. The many planes of the scene are emphasized like a scale model. Usually it is better to divide the frame into unequal parts by positioning the horizon line above or below the mid-point of the frame. Many cameramen intuitively use the rule of thirds (see page 115) to position the horizon. A composition can evoke space by panning up and placing the line low in frame. Placing a high horizon in the frame can balance a darker foreground land mass or subject with the more attention grabbing detail of a high key sky. It also helps with contrast range and exposure.
Zooming in
Tracking in
Foreground and background size relationship is a product of camera distance. How the subject fills the frame is a product of lens angle. This is the crucial distinction between tracking and zooming. Tracking the camera towards or away from the subject alters size relationships – the perspective of mass. Zooming the lens preserves the existing relative size relationships and magnifies or diminishes a portion of the shot. In the above figures, the man seated behind the presenter remains the same size (relative to foreground subject) when the camera zooms into the presenter. If the camera tracks into the presenter it alters the size relationship between foreground and background and the background figures become smaller relative to the foreground subject.
The purpose of the shot
The position of the lens and which lens angle is selected depend on the purpose of the shot, which may be one or a number of the following:
■ to emphasize the principal subject;
■ to provide variation in shot size;
■ to give added prominence to the selected subject;
■ to provide more information about the subject;
■ to provide for change of angle/size of shot to allow unobtrusive intercutting;
■ to allow variety of shot and shot emphasis;
■ to create good shot composition;
■ to favour the appearance of the performer;
■ to alter the internal space in the shot;
■ to alter size relationships in shot;
■ to improve the eyeline;
■ to comply with the lighting rig or natural light.