Index
A
Abietic acid data, 430
chemical, 385
co-current absorbers, 526-528
column diameter calculation, 396-397
column failure, 345
computer simulations, 421-423
concentrated, 406-409
cross-flow, 416
definition, 385
dilute multisolute, 403-406
equilibria, 387-389
graphical analysis, 392-394
irreversible, 410-411
Kremser equation, 397-403
matrix solution, 406-409
McCabe-Thiele diagrams, 389-392
operating lines, 389-392
physical, 385
Absorption factor, 400
Acetic acid data, 430, 461, 484, 499, 619, 700
Acetonaphthalene data, 619, 704, 705
Acetone data, 148, 241, 414, 418, 462, 469, 701
Acetylene data, 618
Activated alumina, 615
Activated carbon, 613
data, 614, 616, 618-619, 621, 700-702
Adsorption. See also Sorption processes.
definition, 609
materials. See Sorbents.
processes. See Pressure swing adsorption, Simulated moving bed, Temperature swing adsorption.
Alanine, 627
Alcohol. See Ethanol.
Alcohol dehydrogenase data, 440
Almost-ideal separations, 370-375
Aniline data, 494
Anthracene data, 619, 628, 656
Aspartic acid, 627
Aspen Chromatography, 708-712
Aspen Plus. See also Computer simulations.
absorption, 421-423
azeotropic distillation, 270-275
decanters, 272
drawing flowcharts, 59-60
error messages, 61-62
extractive distillation, 273-275
flash drum setup, 63-64
multicomponent distillation, 200-204
simulating input data, 60-61, 62
simulations for binary distillation, 157-160
start-up, 59
stripping, 421-423
troubleshooting guide, 713-714
two-pressure distillation, 270-273
VLE data analysis, 61-62
Argon data, 417
Azeotropic distillation, 245, 251-254
B
Balances. See specific balances.
Batch distillation
binary
Rayleigh equations, 277-278
simple, 279-283
constant reflux ratio, 286-290
constant-level, 283-284
versus continuous operation, 278-279
energy requirements, 291
examples
multistage distillation, 286-290
Rayleigh equations binary distillation, 281-283
simple binary distillation, 281-283
history of, 276-278
multistage, 285-290
operating time, 291-292
schematic, 277
solvent-switching, 283
steam, 284-285
variable reflux ratio, 290
Batch extraction, 444-445
Benzene data, 157, 209, 221, 232, 241-242, 245, 265, 430-431
Bibliography, 8-9
Binary batch distillation
Rayleigh equations, 277-278
simple, 279-283
Binary co-current permeation, 592-593, 605-606
Binary countercurrent flow, 594-595, 606-608
Binary cross-flow permeation, 590-592, 603-605
Binary distillation. See also Column distillation.
computer simulation, 157-160
equilibrium relationships, 90-97
McCabe-Thiele method, 97-101
profiles, 112-114
solution methods, 90-97
stage-by-stage methods, 90-97
Binary flash distillation. See Flash distillation, binary.
Binary heterogeneous azeotropes, 227-230
Binary VLE. See Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE), binary.
Boiling point. See Bubble-point temperature.
Boilup
column distillation, 67-70
definition, 67
versus recycling, 69
superheated, 138-140
Bolles-Fair correlation, 513-515
Books of reference. See Publications.
Bovine serum albumin data, 619
Breaking azeotropes, 225-234
Bubble regime, 72
Bubble-cap trays, 303
Bubble-caps, illustration, 303
Bubble-point procedure, 177-178
Bubble-point temperature, 181-184
Bulk density, 612
Butadiene-butylene separation process, 251-252
Butanol data, 227, 262, 374, 430
C
Capital costs
design variables, 363
estimating, 354-359
Carbon dioxide data, 388, 417, 454-455, 545-546
Carbon molecular sieves (CMS), 613
Carbon monoxide data, 388, 545-546
Carbon tetrachloride data, 388, 499
Cascading flash separators, 65-70
Cation-exchange resins, 664-665
Checklist for sorption system design, 692-93
Chemical absorption, 385
Chemical reaction distillation, 254-258
Chemical plants, typical layout, 2
Chemical potential equilibrium, 3
Chimney trays, 307
Chlorinated compound data, 388
Chlorobenzene data, 496
Chloroform data, 242, 388, 461-462, 469
Chromatography. See also Solute movement analysis.
computer simulation, 708-712
definition, 609
costs, 630
displacement chromatography, 631
example, 628-630
flow programming, 630-631
Gaussian solution, 683-687
purge cycles, 626-628
resolution, 685-686
simulated moving bed (SMB) systems, 649-654
solute movement, 626-628
solvent gradients, 630-631
temperature gradient method, 630-631
temperature programming, 630-631
examples
elution chromatography, 628-630
linear chromatography, 686-687
solute movement analysis, 628-630
CMO (constant molal overflow). See Constant molal overflow (CMO).
CMS (carbon molecular sieves), 613
Co-current absorbers, 526-528
Column distillation. See also Binary distillation.
boilup, 67-70
bubble regime, 72
cascading flash separators, 65-70
concurrent cascades, 66-67
countercurrent cascade, 66
debottlenecking, 136-138
design problems, 74
diameter too large, 137-138
enriching section
balance envelope schematic, 87
definition, 69-70
entrainment, 72
equipment, 62-74
example, external balances, 79-81
external balances, 76-81
feed lines, 101-109
feeds
distillation with multiple feeds, 120-125
internal stage-by-stage balances, 101-109
phase and temperature effects, 92-94
subcooled reflux, 138-140
superheated boilup, 138-140
flow regime, 72
flowcharts, 141-142
foam regime, 72
froth regime, 72
increasing capacity, 136-138
isothermal distillation, 66-67
liquid carry-over between stages, 72
optimum feed stage, 74-76, 100-101
passing streams, 67-70
photograph, 71
purity levels, 137
rectifying section, 69-70
recycling versus reflux and boilup, 69
reflux, 67-70
reflux ratio, 74
reusing columns, 136-138
schematics, 68-69
sieve trays, photograph, 73
simulation problems, 74-76
specifications, 74-76
spray regime, 72
stages, calculating number of
Lewis method, 90-97
McCabe-Thiele method, 97-101, 117-118
stripping section, 69-70
variable pressure distillation, 66-67
variables, 74-76
Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances
analytical methods versus graphical, 140-142
binary distillation profiles, 112-114
binary solution methods, 90-97
column sections, 118-119
composition profiles, 112-114
condensers
intermediate, 128-129
partial, 125-126
constant flow rates, 91
constant molal overflow (CMO), 91, 140-142
efficiencies, 133-134
enriching columns, 129-130
equilibrium relationships, 86-90
examples
distillation with multiple feeds, 120-125
feed line calculations, 106-109
Lewis method, 94-97
McCabe-Thiele method, 109-112, 114-118, 120-125
open steam heating, 114-118
feed, phase and temperature effects, 92-94
feed lines, 101-109
flow rate profiles, 112-114
Lewis method
constant molal overflow (CMO), 91-92
example, 94-97
versus McCabe-Thiele method, 140-142
stage-by-stage calculations, 140-142
limiting conditions, 130-132
McCabe-Thiele method
description, 97-101
Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances (continued)
McCabe-Thiele method (continued)
distillation with multiple feeds, 120-125
examples, 109-112, 114-118, 120-125
general analysis procedure, 118-125
versus Lewis method, 140-142
open steam heating, 114-118
problem algorithm, 119
minimum reflux, 130-132
Murphree efficiency, 133-134
open steam heating, 114-118
operating equation, 92
pinch points, 131
reboilers
intermediate, 128-129
total, 126
sidestreams, 126-128
simulation problems, 135-136
Sorel’s method, 91
stripping columns, 129-130
subcooled reflux, 138-140
superheated boilup, 138-140
temperature profiles, 112-114
total reflux, 130-132
withdrawal lines, 126-128
Column mass balances, sorption processes, 674-675
coupling, 370-375
diameter calculation
absorption, 396-397
packed column flooding, 333-338
sieve trays, 314-318
stripping, 396-397
valve trays, 328-329
packed. See Packed columns.
pressure, cost effects, 362
sections, 118-119
staged. See Staged columns.
Complex distillation processes
azeotropic distillation, 245, 251-254
binary heterogeneous azeotropes, 227-230
breaking azeotropes, 225-234
chemical distillation, 254-258
computer simulation, 270-275
distillation boundary curves, 242
distillation curves, 240-243
drying organic compounds, 230-234
examples
drying organic compounds, 232-234
steam distillation, 235-238
extractive distillation, 246-251, 273-275
polarities of compounds, 250-251
residue curves, 243-246
schematic, 226
solvents
adding, 251-254
selecting, 250-251
steam distillation, 234-238
ternary distillation, 240-246
two-pressure distillation, 238-239, 270-273
Component mass balance, 34-40
Composition profiles
column distillation, 112-114
multicomponent distillation, 167-172
Computer simulations. See also Aspen Plus.
absorption, 421-423
azeotropic distillation, 270-275
binary distillation, 157-160
chromatography, 708-712
error messages, 62
extraction, partially miscible, 488-489, 499-500
flash drum setup, 63-64
flowsheets, drawing, 59-60
multicomponent distillation, 200-204
multicomponent distillation, matrix method, 200-204
multicomponent flash distillation, 59-63
stripping, 421-423
VLE data analysis, 61-62
Concentrated absorption, 406-409
Concentration polarization, 560-564, 566-573, 576-578, 602
Concentration profile, 169-172
Concurrent cascades, 66-67
Condensers
intermediate, 128-129
partial, 125-126
Conjugate lines, 470
Constant flow rates, 91
Constant molal overflow (CMO)
column distillation, 91, 140-142
definition, 91
Constant pattern waves, 654-655, 663
Constant reflux ratio, 286-290
Constant-level batch distillation, 283-284
Continuous column distillation. See Column distillation.
almost-ideal separations, 370-375
design variables, 363
estimating, 354-359
coupling columns, 370-375
elution chromatography, 630
equipment costs. See Capital costs.
estimating, example, 364-366
factors effecting
column pressure, 362
energy costs, 366-370
feed rate, 366
operating effects, 359-366
reflux ratio, 359, 362, 364, 367
state of the economy, 355
heat exchange, 367-370
heat exchangers, 355-361
heuristics, 373-375
long-term trends, 366-367
Marshall and Stevens equipment cost index, 355-359
nonideal separations, 376-380
packed columns, 341-345
packings, 358
almost-ideal separations, 370-375
nonideal separations, 376-380
Countercurrent extraction
difference points, 479-483
dilute systems, 428-435
equilibrium stages, 477-479, 482-483
external mass balances, 477-479
Kremser method, 434-435
McCabe-Thiele diagrams, 428-434
stage-by-stage calculation, 479-483
Counterflow, 626-628
Coupling columns, 370-375
Cresol data, 149
Cross-flow extraction, 439-442, 474-477
Cross-flow pattern, 304
Cyclohexane data, 656
Cymene data, 299
D
Debottlenecking, 136-138
Decanters, 272
DePriester charts, 29-33
Dew point temperature, 196
Diagrams. See Enthalpy-composition diagrams; Temperature-composition diagrams; Y-x diagrams.
Dialysis, 536-537
Diameter calculation, columns. See Columns, diameter calculation.
Dichloroethane data, 221
Diethyl ether data, 496
Difference points, 479-483
Diffuse waves, 655-658
Diisopropyl ether data, 263
Dilute fractional extraction, 435-439
Dilute multisolute absorption, 403-406
Dilute multisolute stripping, 403-406
Dinitronaphthalene data, 619, 704-705
Displacement chromatography, 631
Dispersion coefficient, 676, 679
Distillation. See also specific types of distillation.
boundary curves, 242
costs. See Costs of distillation.
curves, 240-243
equilibrium stages, 1-2
stage-by-stage methods, 2
unit operation, 2
Distillation columns. See also Column distillation.
as chemical reactors, 254-258
configurations. See Complex distillation processes; Extractive distillation; Two-pressure distillation.
sequencing. See Synthesizing column sequences.
Divalent-monovalent ion exchange, 668-672
Documentation. See Publications.
Double-pass trays, 304
Downcomers, 304-306
Driving force, 542
Dry tray pressure, 302-303
Drying organic compounds, 230-234
E
Economics of distillation. See Costs of distillation.
Efficiencies
column distillation, 133-134
Murphree, 133-134
determining, 311
estimating, example, 312-314
Murphree, 309-310
O’Connell correlation for distillation, 311-312
O’Connell correlation for absorption, 395-396
scaling up, 312
valve trays, 329
and vapor velocity, 310-311
Electrodialysis (ED), 536-537
Elution chromatography. See Chromatography, elution.
Energy balances
binary flash distillation
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
column distillation. See Column distillation, external balances; Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances.
multicomponent distillation, 191-194
multicomponent flash distillation, 34-40
pervaporation, 585-588
prerequisite skills, 7
sequential solutions, 21-27
sign convention, 78
sorption processes, 677
Energy costs, 366-370
Enriching columns, 129-130
Enthalpy equations, 21-27
graphing binary VLE, 16-20
isotherms, 19-20
Entrainment
bubble-cap trays, 303
definition, 72
inlet ports, 306-309
outlet ports, 308-309
sieve trays
column diameter, 314-320
example, 324-327
hydraulics, 320-327
tray layout, 320-327
vapor velocity, 310-311
Equilibrium
adsorption, 615-619
chemical potential, 3
description, 2-4
distillation stages, 1-2
K values. See K values.
ion exchange, 666-667
mechanical, 3
phase, 3
relationships, column distillation, 86-90
stages, applicability, 1-2
thermal, 3
Equilibrium equations
binary flash distillation
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
sequential solutions, 21-27
Error function, 680
Error messages, Aspen Plus, 61-62
Esterification in distillation column, 254-258
Ethanol data, 14-19, 55, 222, 245, 247, 265, 374, 431, 517-518, 583-584
Ethanol-water separation processes, 109-112, 245-247, 252-255
Ethyl acetate production, 254-258
Ethyl benzene data, 430
Ethylene dichloride data, 150, 221
Ethylene glycol data, 247
Evaporation. See Batch distillation.
External mass balances
binary distillation, 76-81
column distillation, 76-81
Extract, 428
solid-liquid. See Leaching; Washing.
solutes, separating. See Dilute fractional extraction.
Extraction, immiscible. See also Extraction, partially miscible.
batch, 444-445
concentrated solutions, 443-444
countercurrent, 428-435
cross-flow, 439-442
definition, 424
diffusion coefficients, 430
dilute fractional, 435-439
equilibrium data, 430-431
equipment used, 425-427
examples
countercurrent immiscible extraction, 432-434
cross-flow extraction, 440-442
single-stage extraction, 440-442
extract, 428
food industry, 454-547
Kremser analysis
countercurrent extraction, 434-435
dilute systems, 434-435
McCabe-Thiele diagrams
concentrated immiscible extraction, 443-444
countercurrent extraction, 428-434
cross-flow extraction, 439-442
fractional extraction, 437-439
nomenclature, 429
pharmaceutical industry, 454-547
raffinate, 428
single-stage, 439-442
solvent selection, 431
supercritical fluids (SCFs), 454-457
Extraction, partially miscible. See also Extraction, immiscible.
computer simulation, 488-489, 499-500
conjugate lines, 470
countercurrent
difference points, 479-483
equilibrium stages, 477-479, 482-483
external mass balances, 477-479
stage-by-stage calculation, 479-483
cross-flow, 474-477
equilibria, plotting, 468-471
examples
countercurrent extraction, 483-485
cross-flow extraction, 474-477
single-stage extraction, 474-477
minimum solvent rate, 486-488
mixing point, 473
plait points, 469
saturated extract, 471
saturated raffinate, 470-471
single-stage, 474-477
solubility envelope, 469
Extractive distillation, 246-251, 273-275
F
Fair method for column diameter calculation, 314-318
Feed lines
calculating line slope, 106-109
column distillation, 101-109
distillation with multiple feeds, 120-125
effect on flow rates, 92-97
internal stage-by-stage balances, 101-109
intersection of operating lines, 102-106
multiple, 120-125
optimum location, 74-76
phase and temperature effects, 92-94
plotting, 101-109
q value (feed quality), 103-109
subcooled reflux, 138-140
superheated boilup, 138-140
Feed plate, optimum location, 216-219
Feed rate, cost effects, 366
Feed stage, optimum, 100-101
Fenske equations, 205-210
Finite reflux ratios, 215-219
Fire prevention, packed columns, 343-345
Fish liver oil data, 498
Flash distillation. See also Flash drums.
basic processes, 12-13
degrees of freedom, 12-13
equipment required, 12-13
examples
flash drums, sizing, 47-49
multicomponent flash distillation, 37-40
simultaneous multicomponent convergence, 40-45
component mass balance, 34-40
description, 34-40
energy balance, 34-40
example, 37-40
Newtonian convergence, 36-37, 41-43
overall mass balance, 34-40
Rachford Rice equations, 36-37, 37-40
simultaneous convergence, 40-45
simultaneous solutions, 34-40
wide-boiling feeds, 40-41
simulating. See Computer simulations.
energy balance
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
Flash distillation, binary (continued)
equilibrium equations
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
mass balance
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
sequential solution
energy balance, 21-27
enthalpy equations, 21-27
equilibrium data, plotting, 23-24
equilibrium equations, 21-27
examples, 24-27
fraction vaporized (V/F), 22
mass balance, 21-27
operating equations, 22
relative volatility, 26-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
Flash drums. See also Flash distillation.
example, 47-49
requirements, 12
reusing, 49-50
setup, computer simulation, 63-64
sizing, 45-49
Flood regime, 72
Flooding
packed columns, 333-338
valve trays, 328-329
Flow patterns
membrane separation
binary co-current permeation, 592-593, 605-606
binary countercurrent flow, 594-595, 606-608
binary cross-flow permeation, 590-592, 603-605
example, 589-590
overview, 588-589
spreadsheet calculations, 603-608
trays, 304
column distillation, 112-114
multicomponent distillation, 167-172
Flow programming in chromatography, 630-631
Flow rates
multicomponent distillation
correcting, 191-194
initial guess, 181
theta (τ) method convergence, 184-191
Flowcharts
column distillation, 141-142
drawing, 59-60
Foam regime, 72
Fouling, 574
Fraction vaporized (V/F), 22
Froth regime, 72
Furfural data, 430
G
Gas permeation
binary mixtures, 544-547
concentration polarization, 602
examples, 549-550, 550-555, 556-557
membrane types, 546
overview, 544
perfectly mixed systems, binary permeation, 547-555
perfectly mixed systems, multicomponent permeation, 555-557
permanence, 544
rate-transfer (RT) equation, 547-548
Gas treatment plants, 386
Gaussian solution for linear elution chromatography, 683-687
Gel formation, 575-579
Gilliland correlation, 215-219
Glucose data, 619
H
Heat exchange, 367-370
Heat exchangers, 355-361
Heat transfer coefficients, 361
Heat transfer, sorption processes, 677
Heavy key (HK) components, 162
Heavy non-key (HNK) components, 162
Height of packings, 331-333
Helium data, 545-546
Hemodialysis, 537
Henry’s law, 387-389
Heptane data, 30-32, 313-314, 338, 350, 384, 430, 494, 635, 699
Heptane-toluene separation process, 246-250
Heptanol data, 461
Hexane data, 30-32, 44, 48, 56, 84, 313-314, 319, 338, 430
HETP measurement, 332-333
Heuristics for distillation, 373-376
Hollow-fiber system, 539
HTU-NTU (mass transfer analysis). See Mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU).
HTUs, 502
Human serum albumin data, 619
Hydraulics, sieve trays
description, 320-324
example, 324-327
Hydrochloric acid data, 416
Hydrogen sulfide data, 388, 414
Hydrophilic membranes, 581
Hydrophobic membranes, 581
I
Immiscible extraction. See Extraction, immiscible.
Inlet ports, 306-309
Intermediate components, multicomponent distillation, 171
Intermediate condensers, 128-129
Intermediate reboilers, 128-129
Internal stage-by-stage balances. See Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances.
Interstitial velocity in sorption columns, 611-612
Inverted batch distillation, 278, 294
Inverting tridiagonal matrices, 180
cation-exchange resins, 664-665
definition, 609
divalent-monovalent, 668-672
equilibrium, 666-667
example, 668-672
ion movement, 667-672
monovalent, 666-668
overview, 663-664
strong resins, 664
Ion movement, 667-672
Irreversible absorption, 410-411
Isobutane data, 30-32
Isopentane data, 30-32
Isopropyl ether data, 484
Isothermal distillation, 66-67
K
K values
activity coefficient, 32-33
constants, 32
DePriester charts, 29-33
equilibrium equation, 29
mole fractions in liquid, 30
multicomponent VLE, 29-33
Raoult’s law, 31
selection guide, 33
vapor phases, 30
Knudsen diffusion, 674
Kremser analysis
extraction, 434-435
generalized process, 445-447
stripping, 402-403
summary of applications, 447
washing, 451-452
L
Labs. See Computer simulations.
Lang factor, 354
Langmuir isotherms, 616-617
Lapidus and Amundson solution, 679-681
Length of Unused Bed (LUB) approach, 687-691
Lever-arm rule, 27-29, 471-474
Lewis method
calculating number of stages, 90-97
constant molal overflow (CMO), 91-92
example, 94-97
versus McCabe-Thiele method, 140-142
stage-by-stage calculations, 140-142
Light key (LK) components, 162
Light non-key (LNK) components, 162
Linear chromatography, 683-687
Linear isotherms, 625-626
Linoleic acid data, 430
Liquid carry-over between stages, 72
Liquid membranes, 536-537
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE). See Extraction, immiscible; Extraction, partially miscible.
LUB. See Length of Unused Bed (LUB).
Lumped parameter mass transfer, 675-676
M
Marshall and Stevens equipment cost index, 355-359
Mass balances
binary flash distillation
sequential solution, 21-27
simultaneous solution, 27-29
column distillation. See Column distillation, external balances; Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances.
multicomponent distillation, 178-180
prerequisite skills, 7
sequential solutions, 21-27
Mass transfer, 4-5
Mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU)
basic equation, 501-502
Bolles-Fair correlation, 513-515
co-current absorbers, 526-528
coefficients, 502
examples
absorbers, 525-526
HG estimation, 515-520
HL estimation, 515-520
packed column distillation, 508-511
stage efficiency, 530-531
HTUs, 502
McCabe-Thiele diagrams, 506-507
overview, 501-504
packed columns, 504-511
packed tower correlation, 513-521
random packings correlation, 513-515
strippers, 521-526
sum-of-resistances model, 503-504
tray efficiency, 528-531
Matrix solution, 176-180, 191-194, 406-409, 488-489
McCabe-Thiele diagrams
absorption, 389-392
bottom operating lines, 99
calculating number of stages, 97-101, 117-118
CMO validity, 118
column distillation, 97-101
concentrated immiscible extraction, 443-444
countercurrent extraction, 428-434
cross-flow extraction, 439-442
description, 97-101
dilute multisolute absorbers, 405
dilute systems, 397-403, 428-434
distillation with multiple feeds, 120-125
equilibrium relationships, plotting, 23-24, 97-101
examples, 109-112, 114-118, 120-125
fractional extraction, 437-439
general distillation analysis procedure, 118-125
generalized extraction process, 445-447
internal stage-by-stage balances, 97-101
leaching, 452-454
versus Lewis method, 140-142
mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU), 506-507
open steam heating, 114-118
operating lines, 97
optimum feed stage, 100-101
problem algorithm, 119
stepping off stages, 98-101
stripping, 395
summary of applications, 447
top operating lines, 98
triangular diagram relationship, 485-486
washing, 450-452
Mechanical equilibrium, 3
Membrane separation
concentration polarization. See Concentration polarization.
dialysis, 536-537
driving force, 542
electrodialysis (ED), 536-537
energy balances, 585-587
equipment, 537-541
examples
pervaporation, 586-588
ultrafiltration (UF) with gel formation, 577-579
flow patterns
binary co-current permeation, 592-593, 605-606
binary countercurrent flow, 594-595, 606-608
binary cross-flow permeation, 590-592, 603-605
example, 589-590
overview, 588-589
spreadsheet calculations, 603-608
fouling, 574
gas permeation
binary mixtures, 544-547
examples, 549-550, 550-555, 556-557
membrane types, 546
overview, 544
perfectly mixed systems, binary permeation, 547-555
perfectly mixed systems, multicomponent permeation, 555-557
permanence, 544
rate-transfer (RT) equation, 547-548
gel formation, 575-579
hemodialysis, 537
hollow-fiber system, 539
liquid membranes, 536-537
microfiltration, 536-537
nanofiltration, 536-537
osmosis, 558-564
overview, 535-537
passed fluid, 537
performance prediction, 569-573
permeability, 541-543
permeance, 542
permeate, 537
permeate-in-series system, 539
pervaporation, 579-588
plate-and-frame system, 537-538
polymer membranes, 541
purifying liquids. See Ultrafiltration (UF).
retained fluid, 537
retentate, 537
retentate-in-series system, 539
retentate-recycle mode, 539-540
reverse osmosis (RO)
with concentrated solutions, 573
concentration polarization, 566-573
examples, 562-564, 564-566, 567-569, 569-573
membrane properties, determining, 564-566
versus osmosis, 558-564
overview, 558
spiral-wound system, 539
system properties, 536
thickness, 542
tube-in-shell system, 537-538
ultrafiltration (UF), 573-579
vapor permeation, 537
Membranes
definition, 537
for gas permeation, 546
hydrophilic, 581
hydrophobic, 581
liquid, 536-537
material, 541
polymer, 541
properties, determining, 564-566
semipermeable, 559
strength, 543
Methane data, 30-32, 44, 417, 545-546, 616, 618, 621, 701
Methylcellosolve data, 430
Methylcyclohexane data, 471, 494
Methylisobutyl ketone data, 430
Microfiltration, 536-537
Minimum reflux
definition, 131
limiting condition, 130-132
Minimum reflux ratio, 210-215
Minimum solvent rate, 486-488
Mixing calculations, 471-474
Mixing point, 473
Monovalent ion exchange, 666-668
Multicomponent distillation
calculational difficulties, 161-167
complex methods. See Complex distillation processes.
composition profile, 167-172
computer simulation, 200-204
concentration profile, 169-172
examples
bubble-point calculation, 183-184
external mass balances, 164-167
matrix method, 186-191
theta (τ) method convergence, 186-191
external balance equations, 162-167
flow profile, 167-172
heavy key (HK) components, 162
heavy non-key (HNK) components, 162
intermediate components, 171
key components, 162
light key (LK) components, 162
light non-key (LNK) components, 162
non-key (NK) components, 162
profiles, 167-172
sandwich components, 171
schematic, 162
temperature profile, 167-172
Multicomponent distillation (continued)
total flow rates, 167-172
trial-and-error, 163
vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE), 171-172
Multicomponent distillation, approximate methods
examples
Fenske equations, 209-210
Gilliland correlation, 217-219
minimum reflux, 214-215
number of stages, 217-219
optimum feed plate location, 217-219
total reflux, 209-210
Underwood equations, 214-215
feed plate, optimum location, 216-217
Fenske equations, 205-210
finite reflux rations, 215-219
Gilliland correlation, 215-219
minimum reflux ratio, 210-215
stages, determining number of, 215-219
total reflux, 205-210
Underwood equations, 210-215
Multicomponent distillation, matrix method
boiling point. See Bubble-point; Temperature.
bubble-point procedure, 177-178
bubble-point temperature, 181-184. See also Temperature.
computer simulation, 200-204
energy balances, 191-194
examples
matrix solution, 186-191
theta (τ) method convergence, 186-191
flow rates
correcting, 191-194
initial guess, 181
inverting tridiagonal matrices, 180
mass balances, 178-180
narrow-boiling procedure, 177-178
temperature calculations, 177-178. See also Bubble-point.
temperature estimation, 181-184
theta (τ) method convergence, 184-191
Thomas algorithm, 180
Multicomponent flash distillation
example, 37-40
Rachford Rice equations, 36-37, 37-40
sequential solutions, 34-40
Multicomponent VLE. See Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE), multicomponent.
Multiple-pass trays, 304
Multistage batch distillation, 285-290
Murphree efficiencies, 133-134, 309-310
N
Nanofiltration, 536-537
Narrow-boiling procedure, 177-178
Newtonian convergence
determining V/F, 22
multicomponent flash distillation, 36-37, 41-43
Nitrobenzene data, 415
Nitromethane data, 267
Nonane data, 30-32
Nonideal separations, 376-380
Non-key (NK) components, 162
Nonlinear isotherms, 654-658
O
O’Connell correlation, 311-312, 395-396
Octanol data, 264
Oldershaw design, 305, 312-314
Oleic acid data, 430
Open steam heating, 114-118
Operating cost effects, 359-366
Operating equations, 22
Optimum feed location, 74-76
Osmotic pressure, 559-560, 563
Outlet concentration profiles
chromatography, 628-630, 683-685
linear systems, 635-638, 644-649
nonlinear systems, 656-664, 687-690
Outlet ports, 308-309
Oxygen data, 545-546
P
Packed columns
absorption, 396-397
description, 333-338
example, 338-341
stripping, 396-397
economic trade-offs, 341-345
fire prevention, 343-345
flooding, 333-338
internal parts, 329-331
mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU), 504-511
overview, 329
packings
costs, 358
description, 329-331
height of, 331-333
HETP measurement, 332-333
illustration, 329-331
pressure drop per foot, 342
reflux ratio, 342
safety, 343-345
turndown capabilities, 330-331
Packed tower correlation, 513-521
Packed-bed column, 610-611
Packings
costs, 358
description, 329-331
height of, 331-333
HETP measurement, 332-333
illustration, 329-331
mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU), 513-515
Partial condensers, 125-126
Partially miscible extraction. See Extraction, partially miscible.
Particle pellet density, 612
Passing streams, 67-70
Pentane data, 30-32, 44, 57, 84
Perforated plates, 303-304
Permeability, 541-543
Permeate, 537
Permeate-in-series system, 539
Pervaporation, 579-588
selectivity data, 583-584
Phase, effect on feeds, 92-94
Phase equilibrium, definition, 3
Phenol data, 149
Physical absorption, 385
Pinch points
definition, 131
minimum reflux ratio, 210-215
Plait points, 469
Plate-and-frame system, 537-538
Polarities of compounds, 250-251
Poly(ethylene glycol) data, 440
Polymer membranes, 541
Polystyrene resins, 664-665
Ponchon-Savarit diagrams. See Enthalpy-composition diagrams.
Pressure drop per foot, 342
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 641-649
Problem-solving
checking answers, 5-6
defining the problem, 5
exploring the problem, 5
generalizing to other problems, 6
heuristics, 6
How to Model It: Problem Solving for the Computer Age, 6
motivation, 5
planning an attack, 5
prerequisite skills, 5-6
reaching an answer, 5
rules of thumb, 6
steps involved, 5-6
Profiles. See Composition profiles; Flow profiles; Temperature profiles.
Proportional pattern waves, 654-655
Propylene data, 30-32
annotated bibliography, 8-9
batch distillation, 276
Chemical Engineering magazine, 355
Das New gross Distiller Buch, 276
How to Model It: Problem Solving for the Computer Age, 6
Index of Learning Styles, 8
Liber de arte distillandi, 276
VLE data sources, 15
Punched hole pattern, sieve trays, 320
Purge cycles, 626-628
Purity levels, 137
Pyridine data, 496
Q
q (feed quality), 103-105
examples, 106-109
q-line. See feed lines.
R
Rachford Rice equations, 36-37, 37-40
RADFRAC, 200-204
Random packings, 329-331, 334, 344
Raoult’s law, 31
Rate-transfer (RT) equation, 547-548
Rayleigh equations, 277-278
Reboilers
intermediate, 128-129
total, 126
Rectifying section, 69-70
Recycling versus reflux and boilup, 69
Reference books. See Publications.
Reflux
class distillation, 67-70
definition, 67
minimum, 130-132
versus recycling, 69
subcooled, 138-140
total, 130-132
Reflux ratio
batch distillation, 286-290
constant, 286-290
cost effects, 359, 362, 364, 367
determining, 74
finite, 215-219
packed columns, 342
Underwood equations, 210-215
variable, 290
Regeneration steps, 623
Relative volatility, 26-27, 182, 207
Residue curves, 243-246
example, 376-380
Resins, 664-665
Resources. See Publications.
Retentate, 537
Retentate-in-series system, 539
Retentate-recycle mode, 539-540
Reusing distillation columns, 136-138
with concentrated solutions, 573
concentration polarization, 566-573
examples, 562-564, 564-566, 567-569, 569-573
membrane properties, determining, 564-566
versus osmosis, 558-564
overview, 558
RO (reverse osmosis). See Reverse osmosis (RO).
RT (rate-transfer) equation, 547-548, 561-562, 575, 583
S
Safety hazards
absorption column failure, 345
activated carbon solvent recovery, 639
bed fires, 693
fire prevention, packed columns, 343-345
respirators in adsorbers, 693
total reflux distillation, 131
Salt data. See sodium chloride data.
Sandwich components, 171
Saturated extract, 471
Saturated raffinate, 470-471
Scaling up tray efficiencies, 312
SCFs (supercritical fluids), 454-547
Selectivity, membrane
gas permeation, 546-547
pervaporation, 583-584
Self-sharpening waves, 659-663
Semipermeable membranes, 559
Separation methods. See Absorption, Adsorption, Chromatography, Distillation, Extraction, Ion exchange, Membrane separations, Stripping, and Washing.
Sephadex, 619
Sequencing distillation columns. See Synthesizing column sequences.
Sequential solutions
energy balance, 21-27
enthalpy equations, 21-27
equilibrium data, plotting, 23-24
equilibrium equations, 21-27
examples, 24-27
fraction vaporized (V/F), 22
mass balance, 21-27
operating equations, 22
relative volatility, 26-27
flash distillation, multicomponent, 34-40
Sidestreams, 126-128
Sieve trays. See Trays, sieve.
Silica gel, 615
data, 614, 619, 635, 699-700, 702, 704
Simpson’s rule, 279-283, 289, 508-511
Simulated moving bed (SMB) systems, 649-654
Simulations. See Aspen Plus; Computer simulations.
Simultaneous convergence, 40-45
Simultaneous solutions
flash distillation, binary, 27-29
multicomponent flash distillation, 34-40
Single-stage extraction, 439-442, 474-477
Skarstrom cycle, 641
Sodium chloride data, 498, 563, 599
Solid-liquid extraction (SLE). See Leaching.
Solubility envelope, 469
Solute movement analysis. See also Mass energy transfers, linear systems.
basic chromatography
analysis of, 628-630
in a column, 623-625
counterflow, 626-628
elution chromatography, 626-630
for linear isotherms, 625-626
purge cycles, 626-628
regeneration steps, 623
derivation (mathematical) of solute movement theory, 677-678
derivation (physical) of solute movement theory, 623-625, 633-634
examples
diffuse waves, 655-658
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 644-649
self-sharpening waves, 659-663
shock waves, 659-663
simulated moving bed (SMB) systems, 652-654
temperature swing adsorption (TSA), 635-638
thermal regeneration with linear isotherm, 635-638
concentrated systems, 640
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 641-649
safety hazards, 639
simulated moving bed (SMB) systems, 649-654
Skarstrom cycle, 641
temperature swing adsorption (TSA), 631-640
true moving bed (TMB) systems, 650-652
nonlinear systems
constant pattern waves, 654-655, 663
diffuse waves, 655-658
nonlinear isotherms, 654-658
overview, 654-655
proportional pattern waves, 654-655
self-sharpening waves, 659-663
Solvent gradients, 630-631
Solvents
adding, 251-254
Solvent-switching, batch distillation, 283-284
batch extraction, 444-445
Sorbents. See also Sorption processes.
activated alumina, 615
activated carbon, 613
bulk density, 612
carbon molecular sieves (CMS), 613
definition, 610
equilibrium behavior, 615-619
equilibrium constants, 618-619
equipment, 610-611
example, 620-621
interstitial velocity, 611-612
isotherms, 615-619
Langmuir isotherms, 616-617
packed-bed column, 610-611
particle pellet density, 612
properties of, 614
silica gel, 615
structural density, 612
superficial velocity, 611
tortuosity. See tortuosity.
types of, 612-615
zeolite molecular sieves, 613
Sorel’s method, 91
Sorption processes. See also Adsorption; Chromatography; Ion exchange; Sorbents.
column mass balances, 674-675
Sorption processes (continued)
design checklist, 692-693
energy balances, heat transfer, 677
equipment, 630
Knudsen diffusion, 674
mass transfer
detailed simulators, 678
and diffusion, 672-674
lumped parameter, 675-676
surface diffusion, 674
thermal regeneration with linear isotherm, 635-638
Soybean oil data, 467
Spiral-wound system, 539
Spray regime, 72
Stage-by-stage balances. See Column distillation, internal stage-by-stage balances.
Stage-by-stage distillation, 2
Staged columns. See also Trays.
bubble-caps, illustration, 303
diameter calculation
absorption, 396-397
stripping, 396-397
downcomers, 304-306
entrainment
bubble-cap trays, 303
inlet ports, 306-309
outlet ports, 308-309
vapor velocity, 310-311
equipment description, 301-309
inlets, 306-309
outlets, 306-309
perforated plates, 303-304
performance issues, 301-303
turndown, 301-303
valve assemblies, illustration, 302
weeping
inlet ports, 306-309
valve trays, 303
weirs, 306
weirs, 304-306
Stages, calculating number of for distillation
Gilliland correlation, 215-219
Lewis method, 90-97
McCabe-Thiele method, 97-101, 117-118
Steam batch distillation, 284-285
Steam distillation, 234-238
Steam heating, 114-118
Strippers, mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU), 521-526
analysis, 394-396
column diameter calculation, 396-397
computer simulations, 421-423
concentrated, 406-409
definition, 385
dilute multisolute, 403-406
equilibria, 387-389
matrix solution, 406-409
McCabe-Thiele diagrams, 395
O’Connell correlation, 395
Stripping distillation columns, 129-130
Stripping section in distillation, 69-70
Strong resins, 664
Structural density, 612
Structured packings, 329-331, 334, 344
Subcooled reflux, 138-140
Sucrose data, 600
Sugar data, 466
Sulfur dioxide data, 525
Sum-of-resistances model, 503-504
Supercritical fluids (SCFs), 454-457
Superficial velocity, 611
Superheated boilup, 138-140
Superposition, 680-681
Surface diffusion, 674
Synthesizing column sequences
almost-ideal separations, 370-375
nonideal separations, 376-380
T
calculating, 177-178
effect on distillation feeds, 92-94
estimating, 181-184
Temperature gradient method, 630-631
column distillation, 112-114
multicomponent distillation, 167-172
Temperature programming in chromatography, 630-631
Temperature swing adsorption (TSA), 631-640
Temperature-composition diagrams, 19-20
Ternary distillation, 240-246
Thermal equilibrium, 3
Thermal regeneration with linear isotherm, 635-638
Theta (τ) method convergence, 184-191
Thiodipropionitrile data, 430
Thomas algorithm, 180
TMB (true moving bed) systems, 650-652
Toluene data, 157, 209, 241, 471, 699, 702
Tortuosity, 612
typical values, 614
Total flow rates, 167-172
Total reboilers, 126
Total reflux, 130-132, 205-210
Trays. See also Staged columns.
bubble-cap, 303
chimney, 307
column diameter calculation
description, 314-318
example, 318-320
cross-flow pattern, 304
double-pass, 304
efficiencies
determining, 311
estimating, example, 312-314
mass transfer, 528-531
Murphree, 309-310
O’Connell correlation, 311-312, 395-396
scaling up, 312
and vapor velocity, 310-311
flow patterns, 304
layout
description, 320-324
example, 324-327
mass transfer analysis (HTU-NTU), 528-531
multiple-pass, 304
selecting, 304-306
column diameter calculation, 328-329
costs, 358
description, 302-303
design, 327-329
dry tray pressure drop, 302-303
efficiencies, 329
flooding, 328-329
turndown properties, 302-303
column diameter calculation, 314-320
costs, 358
description, 301-302
entrainment
column diameter, 314-320
example, 324-327
hydraulics, 320-327
tray layout, 320-327
examples
entrainment, 324-327
hydraulics, 324-327
layout, 324-327
hydraulics
description, 320-324
example, 324-327
layout
description, 320-324
example, 324-327
mechanical supports, 307
operational limits, 324
punched hole pattern, 320
weeping, 324
Triangular diagrams
conjugate lines, 470
lever-arm rule, 471-474
McCabe-Thiele diagram relationship to, 485-486
mixing calculations, 471-474
mixing point, 473
plotting extraction equilibria, 468-471
saturated extract, 471
saturated raffinate, 470-471
Tributyl phosphate in kerosene data, 464
Trichloroethane data, 150, 221
Triethylamine data, 499
True moving bed (TMB) systems, 650-652
TSA (temperature swing adsorption), 631-640
Tube-in-shell membrane systems, 537-538
Turndown
packed columns, 330-331
staged columns, 301-303
valve trays, 302-303
Two-pressure distillation, 238-239, 270-273
U
Ultrafiltration (UF), 573-579
gel formation, 575-579
retention data, 574
Underwood equations, 210-215
Unit operation, 2
UOP (Universal Oil Products), 649-650
V
Valve assemblies, illustration, 302
Valve trays. See Trays, valve.
van’t Hoff equation, 560
Vapor permeation, 536-537
Vapor velocity
entrainment, 310-311
tray efficiencies, 310-311
Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE)
absorption and stripping, 387-389
analysis simulation, 61-62
binary
enthalpy-composition diagrams, 18-19
graphical representations, 16-20
heterogeneous azeotrope, 227
maximum boiling azeotropes, 19-20
minimum boiling azeotropes, 19-20
saturated liquid curves, 17-18
saturated vapor lines, 17-18
temperature diagrams, 17-18
y-x diagrams, 17
data, forms and sources, 14-16
description, 14-16
extensive variables, 16
Gibbs phase rule, 16
Henry’s law, 387-389
intensive variables, 16
multicomponent
basic equipment, 29-30
DePriester charts, 29-33
K values, 29-33
Raoult’s law, 31-33
multicomponent distillation, 171-172
resource bibliography, 15
Variable pressure distillation, 66-67
Variable reflux ratio, batch distillation, 290
V/F (fraction vaporized), 22
W
Water data, 14-19, 54-55, 84-85, 114, 148, 151, 227, 232, 239, 245, 247, 262-264, 267, 299, 388-389, 414-418, 430-431, 454, 461-462, 469, 484, 496, 498, 517-518, 563, 583-584, 599, 619
Water desalination, 558
Weeping
inlet ports, 306-309
sieve trays, 324
valve trays, 303
weirs, 306
Weirs, 304-306
Wide-boiling feeds, 40-41, 406-407
Withdrawal lines, 126-128
X
Y
y-x diagrams
equilibrium data, plotting, 23-24
isotherms, 19-20
Z
Zeolite molecular sieves, 613
Zirconium nitrate data, 464