16
Movement
Camera movement
When I was 12 years old, I stood in a film studio at Elstree near London watching a camera crane following an actress, Ingrid Bergman, walk down a very large curved staircase set in the centre of the studio. Apart from a location shot filmed in Acton, London, for ‘Kind Hearts and Coronets’ (1949), this was the only film making I had ever seen. I was intrigued by the crane's movement as it floated parallel to, and in perfect synchronization with, the actress's movement, down the stairs and across a hall. Jack Cardiff was the cinematographer on the film ‘Under Capricorn’ (1949) and he wrote many years later about the problems involved with this production. The director, Alfred Hitchcock, was experimenting with the ten-minute take, which he had introduced in ‘Rope’ (1948). The scenery was designed to be moved aside to allow the crane to move between rooms and up the stairs to the bedroom all in the same continuous shot. I was amazed at how many takes it took but only later did I understand why a ten-minute shot requires so much planning and choreography between actor and camera. I think the crane was a Mole Richardson, one of a pair that Hitchcock had imported from the USA, although ten years later, when I worked on the same crane at the BBC, I noticed that it also had MPRC on the side – Motion Picture Research Council, Hollywood.
The crane movement I witnessed that day had all the hallmarks of a classic camera movement. It combined the functional purpose of keeping the main subject in frame in a development shot that took her from A to B, with a visual interpretation of the character's grace and style as she descended the staircase. The rich visual texture of this movement through space did all these things and yet it was probably unnoticed by the audience.
Invisible movement
The camerawork technique practised by the professional cameraman –such as stop/start camera movement on action; matching camera movement to subject movement; pivot points on zooms and tracks; matched shots on intercuts – is designed to make ‘invisible’ the mechanics of programme production. The intention is usually to emphasize subject – picture content – rather than technique.
An old Cliché of Hollywood is that ‘a good cutter cuts his own throat’. It refers to the invisible technique (discussed in Chapter 1) employed by film editors to stitch together a series of shots so that the audience is unaware that any artifice or craft has been employed. The transition between images is so natural that the techniques used flow past unnoticed. The editor has done such a good job in disguising his or her contribution to the film that their expertise is invisible. If the viewer is unaware of the camerawork then quite often the cameraman has achieved his objective. Like the old Hollywood saying, expert camerawork, whether single or multi-camera, renders the cameraman anonymous.
The antithesis of this is seen in many home videos where hose-piping the camera and unsteady zooming draws attention to the method of recording the subject and zaps the viewer into visual stupefaction. The drawback of practising an invisible technique is that, to the uninitiated, there is no obvious ‘craft’. The cameraman is not only anonymous, he or she appears to have made little contribution to the production.
Camera movement and invisible technique
There is the paradox of creating camera movement to provide visual excitement or visual change whilst attempting to make the movement ‘invisible’. Invisible in the sense that the aim is to avoid the audience's attention switching from programme content to the camerawork. As we have discussed, intrusive and conspicuous camera movements are often used for specific dramatic or stylistic reasons (e.g., music videos), but the majority of programme formats work on the premise that the methods of programme production should remain hidden or invisible.
Synchronized movement
Two basic conventions with camera movement are firstly to match the movement to the action so that the camera move is motivated by the action and is controlled in speed, timing and degree by the action.
Secondly, there is a need to maintain good composition throughout the move. A camera move is a visual development that provides new information or creates atmosphere or mood. If the opening and closing frames of a move, such as a zoom in, are the only images that are considered important, then it is probably better to use a cut to change shot rather than a camera move. A camera move should provide new visual interest and there should be no ‘dead’ area between the first and end image.
A camera move is usually prompted by one of the following:
to add visual interest;
to express excitement, increase tension or curiosity;
to provide a new main subject of interest;
to provide a change of viewpoint;
to interpret an aspect of the narrative;
to follow the action.
Movement that is not motivated by action will be obtrusive and focus attention on the method of recording the image. It will make visible the camera technique employed. It is sometimes the objective of obtrusive camera movement to invigorate content that is considered stale and lacking interest. If there is a lack of confidence in the content of a shot, then possibly it is better to rethink the subject rather than attempting to disguise this weakness by moving attention on to the camera technique employed.
Obtrusive camera movement
Early films were often conceived by the audience as moving photographs and dubbed ‘the movies’. Movement always captures attention and interest and there has been a continuous demand for fast-moving productions and fast-moving camerawork accentuating the pace of the action.
As we discussed in Chapter 12, in the development of music videos, pace became the source of energy that drove the audience's interest forward, not the ‘what happens next in the story?’ technique of classic Hollywood narrative style. Music videos are similar to commercials with many images combined in a very short time. A characteristic of this style is continuous camera movement and very fast cutting –almost single frame – to inject pace.
This is using camera movement in a very different way to the disguised, unobtrusive changing image of much film and television production. But continuous, obtrusive movement has moved from music videos/commercials to much mainstream popular programming. There is a modern emphasis on continuous camera movement that appears to obey the dictum that it is not visually interesting unless the image is on the move. Some suggest that this rapid change of view is a product of reduced attention span or, on the other hand, an example of greater visual literacy that allows the audience to understand visual information in a much shorter time than their parents.
Single camera and multi-camera movement
Film is a record of an event edited and assembled after the event occurs. Live television is a presentation of an event as it occurs. Although camera movement in single and multi-camera shooting share many similarities, they are to some extent conditioned by the differences imposed by the practice of recording a single shot and the practicalities of recording or transmitting a number of shots continuously.
Live, or recorded as live, multi-camera coverage presents an event in real time and requires flexible camera mounts able to provide a variety of shots. In the studio, camera movement can be maximized on- or off-shot by tracking over a level floor. Film and single camera coverage can break the action into single shots and lay tracks and devise movement without the need to compromise or be inhibited by other camera movement.
Staging action for multi-camera continuous coverage requires a great deal more visual compromise than action that is conceived for a single shot. There are limitations on set design and lighting for multi-camera shooting which are easily overcome or simply not a consideration in single shot/single camera recording. In general, because of the constraints of time/budget, multi-camera operation often requires constant minor adjustments to the frame in order to accommodate actor position or staging that could have been replotted if time/budget (and the ever-present need for multi-camera compromise) was available.
Two types of movement
Camera movement can be conveniently grouped as functional movement and interpretive movement. This over-simplified division will often overlap but if functional movement is reframing to accommodate subject movement, then interpretive movement can be defined as a planned, deliberate change of camera position or zoom to provide visual variety, narrative emphasis or to reflect mood, atmosphere or emotion. Subject movement is often designed to motivate camera movement so in practice there is often no simple demarcation.
Camera movement also includes change of size of shot motivated by dialogue or narrative demands. Frequently, the importance or emotional intensity of a line of dialogue will naturally draw the camera closer but the move has to be handled with sensitivity and feeling, and timed to exactly match the emotions expressed. Just as camera movement will be synchronized with the start/stop points of action, movement motivated by dialogue or emotional expression, will be controlled by the timing and nuances of the performance.
One of the weaknesses of television camerawork is that there is a tendency to cover action by small zoom movements or camera movement. Single-camera film or video usually settle on either staging the action so that it can be contained in a static frame or have tracks laid down and devise a positive camera movement to contain the action. In television productions, continuous small minor adjustments of framing detract from content and become an irritant, although with unrehearsed action there is no way of avoiding constant frame adjustment. As subject movement is frequently unplanned, the composition of the shot will need continuous adjustment. This requires a pan and tilt head that can be instantly adjusted in discrete movements.
Multi-camera coverage requires maximum flexibility with camera movement to follow often unrehearsed action. A common dilemma is when to reframe a subject who is swaying in and out of reasonable framing. The shot may become too tight for a subject who needs to emphasize every point with hand gestures. It is seldom possible to constantly pan to keep someone who is swaying in frame as, inevitably, an anticipated movement does not happen and the composition becomes unbalanced. If the shot cannot be contained without continuous reframing then the incessant moving background will eventually become a distraction from the main subject of the shot. The only solution is to widen the shot. If the viewer is unaware of the camerawork then quite often the cameraman has achieved his objective. Expert camerawork, whether single or multi-camera, provides invisible camera movement by matching movement to action.
The pan
The simplest camera movement on a static subject is the pan. It is often used in the mistaken idea that it gives visual variety among a number of static shots. Usually, the main use of a pan, apart from keeping a moving subject in frame, is to show relationships.
There is obviously the need to begin a pan with a well-balanced shot that has intrinsic interest in its own right. The second requirement is to find visual elements that allow the pan to flow smoothly and inevitably to the end framing. The end frame must be well balanced and again of intrinsic interest. The pan alerts the viewer that the camera is moving to reveal some image of importance or interest. If this anticipation is denied and the end framing is quickly cut away from because it contains no visual interest, then the movement is an anti-climax.
Using dominant lines and movement
The speed of a panning shot must be matched to content. Panning fast over complex detail produces irritation – it is impossible to take in the information. Panning slowly over large, unbroken, plain areas may provoke boredom. It is almost always necessary to help with the visual change by finding some visual connection between first and last composition. Panning with movement, along lines, edges or any horizontal or vertical visual link usually disguises the transition and leads the eye naturally to the next point of interest. Use dominant horizontal, vertical or angled lines to pan along in order to move to a new viewpoint. Panning on lines in the frame allows visual continuity between two images and appears to provide a satisfactory visual link The same visual link can be achieved by using movement within the frame to allow a pan or a camera movement from one composition to another. A common convention in an establishing shot is to follow a person across the set or location, to allow new information about the geography of the setting as the shot develops. The person the camera follows may be unimportant but is used to visually take the camera from a starting composition to possibly the main subject.
The reverse of unobtrusive technique is frequently seen in the ‘pan and scan’ conversion of widescreen films to 4:3 television screens. The 4:3 framing oscillates from one side of the original widescreen to the other with no visual motivation other than change of dialogue location. This ersatz ‘panning’ is intrusive and clumsy.
The speed of a pan across a symphony orchestra playing a slow majestic piece will be at a different speed to a pan across the orchestra when it is playing at full gallop. Speed of movement must match mood and content. If it is required to be discrete and invisible then movement must begin when the action begins and end when the action ends. A crane or tilt up with a person rising must not anticipate the move neither must it be late in catching up with the move. Any movement that is bursting to get out of the frame must either be allowed camera movement to accommodate it or there is a need for a cut to a wider shot.
Figure 16.1 Preselect one or two adjacent sides of the frame to the main subject of the zoom and, whilst maintaining their position at a set distance from the main subject of the zoom, allow the other two sides of the frame to change their relative position to the subject. Keep the same relationship of the adjacent frame edge to the selected subject during the whole of the zoom movement
It is an old truism that still photography deals with space relationships whilst film and television camerawork deal with space, time and movement to accommodate a constantly changing visual pattern. Composition is not just the shape of subjects but also the shape of motion. As well as camera movement, there is also movement within the frame when either dialogue or action switches the audiences attention between the main subjects.
Pivot points
A common mistake with users of domestic camcorders is to centre the subject of interest in the frame and then to zoom towards them keeping the subject the same distance from all four sides of the frame. The visual effect is as if the frame implodes in on them from all sides.
A more pleasing visual movement is to keep two sides of the frame at the same distance from the subject for the whole of the movement. This is achieved in a track or a zoom by preselecting a pivot point in the composition which is usually the main subject of interest and, whilst maintaining their position at a set distance from two adjacent sides of the frame, allow the other two sides of the frame to change their relative position to the subject. This allows the subject image to grow progressively larger (or smaller) within the frame whilst avoiding the impression of the frame contracting in towards them (Figure 16.1).
The point that is chosen to be held stationary in the frame is called the pivot point. Using a pivot point allows the subject image to grow progressively larger (or smaller) within the frame whilst avoiding the impression of the frame contracting in towards them.
It may be necessary on a combined track and crabbing movement to change this pivot point during the move but again, as in all camera techniques, the changeover to a different pivot point must be subtle, unobtrusive and controlled by the main subject of interest. The movement must be choreographed so that there are no violent swings on pivot points from left to right of frame.
Finding the right tracking line
We saw in the description of zooming that keeping two sides or even one side of the frame at a constant distance from the principle subject throughout a zoom or track creates a more pleasing visual result than simply allowing all four sides to implode in on the subject.
In zooming, the control of the pivot point is achieved by panning and/or tilting to adjust the frame during the zoom. Control of the framing during tracking (to keep a constant distance between one side of the frame and the subject) can also be achieved by panning/tilting but it is more effective if it can be controlled by the line of the track (see Figure 16.2).
Finding the right camera height when tracking
The same technique can be used to maintain a pivot point at the top of the frame when tracking in or out, for example, on a singer. When tracking-in, the camera is craned up at a rate that holds the pivot point at the top of the frame without the need to reframe the camera. The lens height automatically arrives at the more flattering position, slightly above eye height, for the closer shot whilst avoiding crossing the key light and shadowing the artiste! Tracking-out, the camera is craned down at a rate that maintains the top-of-the-frame pivot point arriving at a lower angle wide-shot that compresses the amount of floor area in shot.
The development shot
Tracking or crabbing the camera to emphasize another visual element in the frame is a standard convention that has been used for many years. A development shot, as the name implies, is a shot that smoothly and unobtrusively moves towards a new viewpoint. It can start with a composition that emphasizes one set of visual elements and then moves, motivated by action or driven by the audience's curiosity, to an image that emphasizes another set of visual elements. In dramatic terms, it has no real equivalent in theatre or literature and when staging, pace and execution are fully integrated it can provide the most visually exciting images.
To achieve its greatest impact, a development often requires foreground elements to wipe across frame to emphasize movement; it requires a progressive change of viewpoint from its starting position; and it needs a main subject of interest that can be followed through various dynamic compositions. Although the movement must be fluid and changing, it requires a continuing revelation of dynamic images.
Many development shots require either a wide opening to the move or they end wide. As we have discussed, camera movement is accentuated when using the wide-angle end of the zoom (plus appropriate set design) but if part of the development involves a medium close-up or close-up of a face, then at some stage, on a wide angle (< 40°) there will be unacceptable distortion and probably camera shadow.
Figure 16.2 A tracking line to produce an end frame of presenter plus scoreboard. The tracking line chosen requires no constant reframing during the move and no change in the direction of the pedestal wheels to maintain the preselected pivot point. It is the tracking line angle that maintains the pivot point. Operationally it is simpler and smoother and visually unobtrusive – the motivation for selecting a pivot point
This can be avoided by starting the move on the wide angle and then, at some point in the development, continue the move on the zoom. The transition between track and zoom needs careful selection but usually the movement can be carried over by continuing with a slight crab whilst ending in a tight shot on the zoom. This obviously involves ‘blind zooming’ with no opportunity to pre-check focus. Critical focus will occur in close-up just at the point when subtle control of framing is required. On a crane or a dolly, the camera lens can be tracked to a predetermined position whilst the cameraman controls framing, pivot and focus. The same type of development shot on a pedestal may require the assistance of a tracker to ‘sweeten’ the move. The reverse development shot of zoom first–track later requires even more precise focus and attentive camera control.
A development shot moves from one set of visual elements on to another viewpoint. This visual transition requires reframing, using pivot points, tracking, crabbing and zooming and therefore it is essential that the cameraman anticipates what the final frame will be in order to smoothly progress the move to achieve that objective. Visual anticipation is organizing all the necessary adjustments before the end frame is reached. ‘Tidying up’ the composition cannot be left until the move has ended.
Figure 16.3 An extended development shot in the opening sequence of ‘Touch of Evil’ (1958). (a) Close-up of timer of bomb being set in someone's hands; (b) bomb being placed in boot of car; (c) camera cranes up to see couple walk to the car; (d) the car passes the principal characters and the camera follows them; (e) to the frontier post where the car with the bomb draws alongside
The opening shot of ‘Touch of Evil’ (1958) directed by Orson Welles shows a package being placed in the boot of a parked car (Figure 16.3). People enter the car and the camera cranes up and away over the roof of a house as the car pulls away. Tracking across a street the camera finds another couple walking and then follows the car and the couple as they walk though a Mexican frontier town. The car and the walking couple constantly switch positions as the main subject of interest before the car reaches the frontier customs post and explodes. This continuous development lasting a minute of screen time allows the plot to be established whilst creating atmosphere and excitement all contained in one fluid exciting development. Actor movement and camera movement need to be perfectly choreographed by the director to achieve such visual cohesion (Figure 16.3(a)–(e)).
Compositional impact can also be achieved by combining unexpected perspective characteristics. In Stephen Spielberg's ‘Jaws’ (1975), the sheriff of a seaside town has been anticipating the return of the man-eating shark and suddenly hears screams from the beach. Keeping him in mid-shot, the camera tracks and zooms, which keeps his image the same size but, because of the changing camera distance, progressively shows a background to foreground size ratio change. The visual effect is to freeze him in space while the background is apparently in flux. The same double movement of camera and zoom was used by Alfred Hitchcock in ‘Vertigo’ (see Figure 16.5).
Static camera – moving subject
Lens angle, camera distance and camera height will dictate the characteristics of a moving subject composition. On a long focal length lens with the subject at a distance from the camera, space will be compressed and movement will appear disproportionately small compared with image size. For example, a subject can walk ten paces on a long focal length lens in mid-shot and hardly register a change in size. This contradicts our normal perception of perspective change and sets up a surreal ‘running on the spot’ feel to the image.
A close position with a wide-angle lens will accentuate movement, and any movement towards the camera will make the subject change size disproportionately to the actual movement taken. Action that is corner to corner will be more dynamic than action that sweeps horizontally across the frame.
Moving camera/moving subject
One of the most common forms of moving camera/moving subject shot is to follow, in the same size shot, a subject walking or driving. A popular convention is the parallel tracking shot where two people in conversation walk with the camera crabbing with them often slightly ahead so that both faces are seen. For this technique to be ‘invisible’ the frame must be steady, horizontally level and the same size shot maintained over most of the move. The effect is as if the audience was a third person walking with them and listening in to their conversation.
A number of visual variations are to be found, which rely on what is a static foreground of main subject whilst the background moves. People in cars, trains even glass lifts can be held framed in static shot while the background moves behind them.
Moving the camera whilst the subject size alters can be more difficult to handle. Unless there are other visual elements moving in and out of the frame, the change in size of the subject can appear as if the camera is unable to keep up or is gaining on the subject. When the movement is across the frame as in a crabbing shot then change of size may not be so apparent and is visually acceptable.
Figure 16.4
Frame adjustment whilst tracking
One of the compositional conventions of camerawork with profile shots, where people are looking out of frame, is to give additional space in the direction of their gaze for ‘looking room’. Similarly, when someone is walking across frame, to give more space in front of them than behind.
This space in the frame to ‘walk into’ needs to be maintained throughout a development. This can be difficult if the subject, for example, is standing to the left of frame and moves to camera left (i.e., towards the left-hand side of the frame; see Figure 16.4). This requires an accelerated rapid pan left in order to provide space on the left (the direction of movement) before settling down to match the speed of the pan with the walk. The appropriate framing for the end composition must be achieved before the subject stops to avoid the camera reframing after the action has ended. If the subject is walking to take up a similar left of frame position with another ‘results board’, then the camera must stop the pan when the board is correctly framed making certain there is sufficient space on left of frame for the subject to walk into. In general, anticipate any change in frame size whilst on the move and do not leave the reframing until the subject has settled. Come to rest with the subject.
As we have seen in the section on perspective, moving the camera towards or away from the subject alters the size relationships between foreground and background objects. The perspective of mass changes in a similar way to our own perceptual experience when we move towards or away from an object. Tracking the camera therefore not only conforms to our normal visual expectations but sets up interesting re-arrangements of all the visual elements in the camera's field of view. Changing the camera distance alters all the image size relationships apart from very distant objects near or on the horizon. The size of a range of hills remains unaffected no matter how far we travel towards them until we reach a critical distance where we have a part of the hills as foreground with which to compare a background.
Movement within the shot and lens angle
A two-dimensional film or television image of three-dimensional space can involve compromise between action and the requirements of the camera. A common adjustment is the speed of the actor movement to the size of the shot or the lens angle in use.
A small movement in a close-up can be the equivalent of a big movement in long shot. A full figure, three-pace walk towards a wide-angle lens will create a much bigger change in size than the equivalent full figure walk towards a 25° lens. The ‘internal space’ of the lens in use becomes a critical consideration when staging action for the camera (see Figure 15.1).
Actor movement that is motivated by the story line is often required to be modified by the demands of the specific lens in use. One of the most common adjustments is the speed of a rise from a chair, which may need to be covered in close-up. A normal rise will often appear frantic contained in a tight shot and is frequently slowed down. This also helps with the problem of achieving good framing when covering a fast-moving subject on a tight lens.
Another common development shot is keeping a foreground artiste or object in shot while crabbing to follow the background movement of another actor. This is fairly straightforward using a wide-angle lens if the camera position is tight to the foreground subject, as this allows the arc of the crab to be relatively short. A few feet of camera movement will accommodate a 10-ft change of position of a background artiste. If a longer focal length lens is used, for the same size foreground image, the camera is much further back and the arc of the crabbing line now becomes considerably extended in order to keep the same background actor movement in shot (Figure 16.5(a) and (b)). Using a narrower angle lens also alters the apparent movement of the camera as less background scenery is covered by the sweep of the lens.
Camera movement must have visual elements that change their relationship depending on camera position. A crab around a subject set against a featureless background will provide slight indication of change of viewpoint. The same movement with the subject set against a varied and broken background now has markers to indicate the change of viewpoint. If foreground features sweep across the frame there are even more indicators that the viewpoint is changing and the movement (if that is what is required) becomes more dominant and visual.
Camera movement using a narrow-angle lens has a distinct visual quality but requires greater operational precision than wide-angle lens movement. Moving the camera using a wide-angle lens is smoother and provides a great deal more movement in the frame for the distance covered compared with using a narrow-angle lens.
The internal space of a shot often underlines the emotional quality of the scene. ‘Normal’ perspective (see Chapter 4) for establishing shots is often used where the intention is to plainly and straightforwardly describe the locale. A condensed or an expanded space, on the other hand, may help to suggest the mood or atmosphere of the action.
The choice of lens angle and resulting composition should not be accidental unless, as is frequently the case, camera position and angle are fait accompli created by a multi-camera compromise.
Accentuating the effect of camera movement
The greatest impression of movement can be observed by using a wide-angle lens and tracking between similar size objects such as a row of trees on each side of a road. The apparent size of each tree to its neighbour changes dramatically as it approaches the lens. There is a constant visual flow of size ratio expansion as we track down the road.
Figure 16.5 (a) A common development shot is to hold a two shot of foreground actor (C) while actor A walks to B. If the camera position is tight to the foreground subject (C) the arc of the crab is relatively short. (b) If a longer lens is used, for the same size foreground image, the camera is much further back and the arc of the crabbing line now becomes considerably extended in order to keep the same background actor movement in shot
Figure 16.6 From a wide shot (a) there are two methods of achieving a medium shot of the presenter standing on the left of frame. If the camera (without moving) zooms into a medium shot (b) it is equivalent to enlarging the portion of the wide shot outlined. There is no change in perspective and the background seated man is in the same size relationship to the presenter in the wide shot as in the final zoom position. If the camera tracks in to arrive at a medium shot (c) the size relationship changes and also more of the background is in the medium shot than in the same size shot achieved by zooming in
Zooming along the road between rows of trees does not have anything like the same visual dynamics. The camera does not move and therefore there is no change in size relationships. The zoom simply magnifies the central portion of the field of view preserving the existing size relationships. They remain unaltered as in a still photograph when a portion of it is enlarged. The perspective of mass is decided by the camera distance and zooming simply expands or contracts a portion of the field of view.
The feeling of flatness or deadness of a zoom is because there is no anticipated change to the perspective of mass that in normal perception accompanies changes in magnification or diminution of subject. This compositional inertia can be disguised by building in a camera move such as a pan with action or even a crabbing movement to accompany a zoom. The camera movement provides some relational changes to the visual elements that the zoom is magnifying.
The compositional distinction between zoom and track
Tracking into a scene extends the involvement of the viewer in that they are being allowed visually to move into the two-dimensional screen space. In normal perception, depth indicators can be appraised or checked by moving the head or the body to seek a new viewpoint of the field of view. Viewing a series of static images on a two-dimensional screen does not allow this visual ‘interrogation’. If depth is to be indicated it must be self-evident and contained in the composition of the image. A tracking shot provides a change in viewpoint and allows the viewer greater opportunity to experience the depth of the space pictured compared with either a zoom or a static shot.
A zoom in or out contains no change in size relationships, it simply allows either a greater magnification of a portion of the shot or wider view of the same size relationships. The argument for zooming (apart from convenience and budget) is that, as a television production is a highly artificial process, the viewer is already experiencing a radically different visual sensation watching a two-dimensional image of an object (which is either magnified or extremely diminished) compared with their visual experience when observing the actual event. If so much is changed in the translation by the film and television medium using techniques of shot size, perspective, two dimensions, small image, etc., why quibble about zooming that fails to reproduce some small physical aspect of human perception? A television production is an approximation of an event that often includes attempts to induce an experience of the event in the viewer. Zooming creates a visual experience and therefore, it is argued, is as valid a technique as any other artifice employed.
Maintaining good composition when moving
When tracking, it is often necessary to adjust the height of the camera, particularly when moving into the human figure. In shots closer than full figure, lens height is often eye-height, but when the camera is further away, depending on the shot, the lens height is usually lower to reduce the amount of floor/ground in shot. A low lens height places emphasis on the subject by avoiding distracting foreground level surfaces such as roads, grass or floor. Like all ‘rules of thumb’, this convention is probably ignored more than it is employed but changes in lens height often accompany tracking movements in order to bring emphasis on to the main subject.
Another reason for altering the lens height when tracking into the subject is to enhance the appearance of artistes by shooting slightly down on faces, rather than shooting up and emphasizing jaw lines and double chins, etc.
Hot heads and remotely controlled cameras
One of the limitations of development shots that attempted to cover a wide range of movement in space was the need for the camera to be manned. This required the crane to carry the weight of the cameraman and camera on a boom arm that was counterbalanced and positioned in space by a tracker. The whole of this weight was mounted on a moving platform often driven by a motor. This type of crane was a large and sometimes limited device to produce camera movement.
The development of the remotely controlled lightweight camera mounted on a much lighter dolly using a remote controlled ‘hot head’ (a generic title for a remotely controlled pan/tilt head) allowed camera developments that were not possible with the traditional crane design. The range of the lightweight boom arms were much greater and could be swung into formerly inaccessible positions such as over the top of audiences or in high angle positions within a set. A greater speed of movement in shot development became possible and a whole new range of fluid compositions became commonplace.
Lightweight video cameras have also allowed the widespread use of Steadicam. This torso harness camera mount separates body movement from the camera and has revolutionized ‘hand-held’ operation. Steadicam has enabled a whole new range of visual development shots over any surface without the need to lay tracks. Movement of 360° around the subject, following action up/down stairs, through doorways, into transport, and following sports events by running the touch line are just some of the camera movements that are possible. In the hands of a skilful operator, the camera can be smoothly moved to any point in the space accessible to a person.
Remotely controlled cameras and pedestals were introduced into news studios and allowed one individual to control a number of cameras from a control room position. Robotic cameras could be preprogrammed to provide a range of shots at the touch of a button and to reposition in the studio. A timed preset zoom movement could be created that reframed the shot utilizing pivot points. The ‘remoteness’ of this type of camera operation precludes some types of production contribution provided by a manned camera.
Summary
Camerawork technique – such as stop/start camera movement on action; matching camera movement to subject movement; pivot points on zooms and tracks; matched shots on intercuts – is designed to make ‘invisible’ the mechanics of programme production. The objective is usually to emphasize the subject – picture content – rather than camera technique.
Two basic conventions with camera movement are firstly to match the movement to the action so that the camera move is motivated by the action and is controlled in speed, timing and degree by action. Secondly, there is a need to maintain good composition throughout the move. A camera move should provide new visual interest and there should be no ‘dead’ area between the first and end image of the movement.
Functional movement is reframing to accommodate subject movement. Interpretive movement can be defined as a planned, deliberate change of camera position or zoom to provide visual variety, narrative emphasis or new information. Just as camera movement will be synchronized with the start/stop points of action, movement motivated by dialogue or emotional expression will be controlled by the timing and nuances of the performance.