Index
Note: Paintings are in italics and films are in single quotes.
‘A Bout de Souffle’ (Breathless), 17
Abstraction, 76–7; in photography, 128
Academy Flat, 96
Academy ratio (4:3, 1.33:1), 90, 93; composition blocking, 107; inserting 4:3 material into 16:9 production, 118–19; sound affecting, 93–4; of standard TV screen, 90, 97, 108; widescreen film and, 108–10, 112–14, 121, 206; on widescreen TV, 118
Action:; camera movement matched to, 203–4; camera surprised by, 160–1; continuity, see Continuity; in early photographs, 124–5, 195–6; live, see Live action; rhythm of, see Rhythm; staging, see Staging, action; see also Movement
Active format descriptor, 117–18
Actors, see People
Actuality programming, see Live action
Additive colour system, 187
Advanced TV (ATV), 99
Almendros, Nestor, 192
America (USA):; American Society of Cinematographers, widescreen TV aspect ratios and, 100, 101; documentary film makers in 1960s, 137
American Society of Cinematographers, widescreen TV aspect ratios and, 100, 101
Analogue TV system, changeover to digital, 99, 104, 117
Analytical editing, 242
Anamorphic facility on widescreen TV, 118
Anamorphic lenses and Anamorphic Scope, 96, 106
Ancient history/civilizations, 123–4; golden rectangle, 102–3, 124
Angle (camera), 57
Angle (lens), 37, 47, 57; angle of view, 38; choice, 47, 47–9, 50–2; style and, 50–2, 145–6; ‘correct’ perspective and, 48; high, see High angle; narrow, see Narrow angle; speed of actor movement and, 211–12; TV camera, 153–4; wide, see Wide angle; zoom lens, 39
Antonioni, Michelangelo, 85; ‘Chung Kuo Cina’, 23; ’Il desert Rosso’, 165
Art house (avant-garde) film/film makers, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24
Artistes, see People
Aspect ratios, 58, 87, 90–105; conversion (in widescreen TV and HDTV), 113–14, 114; 4:3 material inserted into 16:9 frame, 118–19; by receiver, 117–18; historical perspectives, 90–105; production (recorded) and presentation screen (display) mismatch, 90, 108; dealing with, 108–10, 112–19; TV, 96–8; widescreen, see subheading below widescreen film, see Widescreen film widescreen TV and HDTV, 98, 99–104, 112–22; compromises between competing ratios, 101–2; conversion, see subheading above see also specific aspect ratios
Association, reference by, 78
Astaire, Fred, in ‘Top Hat’, 61
Attention (and interest), 74–5, 80–1; and blindness to change, 34; divided, 66, 88, 88–9; news/factual programming, 88–9, 197–8; drawing/attracting and holding:; by editing, 221–2, 243 by lighting, 173; to main subject, 58–9, 63, 64–5, 74–5, 80–1; in news/documentaries, 140; by teasing/puzzling audience, 243; dynamic balance providing, 63; perception and, 33–4 switching centre of, 80–1
Audio, see Sound
Authenticity, see Realism
Avant-garde film/film makers, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24
Background, 198; control, 198; crabbing to follow another actor moving in, 212 defocused, 40, 41, 164–5; matching between shots, 239–40; see also Figure and ground
‘Bad Day at Black Rock’, 108
Balance (in composition), 62–6; ambiguity and, 63 with colour, 191 dynamic, 63–4 formal, 64–5; resolution of, 62–3; see also Colour, balance; White balance
Bandwidth (TV picture), 97
HDTV, 98
‘Batman’ (1989), 87
BBC, aspect ratio changes, 97–8
Beatles films, 159 Beauty, line of, 71
The Betrothal of the Arnolfini, 178
Black-and-white medium, see Monochrome
Blue, coldness, 192
Boom in shot, 110
Border, see Frame
Bounced light, 181
Brain:; filling in gaps in information, 34–5; perception and, see Perception; see also Mind
‘Breathless’ CA Bout de Souffle), 17
Brecht, Bertold, 18
Brightness:; gradations in, 169–70; relative, 36
British Broadcasting Corporation, aspect ratio changes, 97–8
Buñuel's ‘Un Chien Andalou’, 23
Camera(s):; angle, 57; canted (Dutch tilt), 87, 149; CCD, see CCD cameras; ‘crossing the line’, 6, 230; distance from object, see Distance; height, 58; lens, see Lens; movement, 6, 11, 56, 147, 202–16; accentuating effect of, 212–14; constant movement (e.g. in NYPD Blue), 24, 159–60; functional movement, 205; historical aspects, 4–5, 6; interpretive movement, 205; invisible movement, 203–8; maintaining good composition during, 214–15 obtrusive movement, 204; repetition setting up visual rhythm, 72–3; single and multi-camera movement, 204–5; uncertainty/unsteadiness expressed by, 159–60 zooming and, 154; see also Pan; multiple, see Multi-camera production portable/hand-held, 154–5, 215; realism and, 160–1; position/placement, see Position; remotely controlled, 215; static viewpoint, 84–5; and moving subject, 210; surprised by action, 160–1; surveillance, 135–6; tilt, see Tilt; TV, see Television cameras; see also Video camera
Camerawork, standard conventions, 24–5; historical aspects, 5–7; why people dislike rejection of, 22
Camouflage, 68
Canted camera (Dutch tilt), 87, 149
‘Casablanca’, 52; colourized, 113, 121
Caulfield's Office Party, 177
CCD (charged coupled device) cameras, 185; increased sensitivity, 182
Celebrities, see Stars
Change, blindness to, 334
Charged coupled device, see CCD
Charismatic artistes, see Stars
‘Chien Andalou’, ‘Un’, 23
‘Chung Kuo Cina’, 23
Cinema:; early, 3–4; home, widescreen stereo TV promoted as, 104; multiplexes, 110; widescreen, see Widescreen film; see also Film
Cinemascope, 94, 95–6, 106, 120
Cinematographer attitudes:; to widescreen film pan and scan for TV, 109; to widescreen TV aspect ratios, 100, 101
Clichéd visual metaphor, 231–2
Close shot/close-up shot, 80, 145–6, 152, 153, 234; actor movement in, 211–12; big (BCU), 152, 153; factual information, 225, 234; medium, see Medium close-up shot; on widescreen TV, 115
Closed frame technique, 85, 89
Closure, similarity by, 61
‘Cold/warm’ colours, 192
Colour, 186–93; balance, altering, 188; composition and, 191–2; correction, 187–8; defocused blobs of, 164–5; eye and perception of, see Eye; Perception; grouping by similarity of, 61; matching between shots, 239–40; monochrome viewfinders and, 189–91; post-production changes, 188; as subject, 188; symbolism, 192–3; temperature, 187;see also specific colours
Colour viewfinders, 189
Colourized films, 113; ‘Casablanca’, 113, 121
Comment and opinion, separating comment from, 132, 134
Communication, see Visual communication; Composition, 10–12; aims in, 54–5; colour and, 191–2; control, 14–15, 57–9; dance and, 245–6; definition, 10–11; frame influencing, 83; importance, 13–14; intuition in, 12–13; lighting in, see Light; styles, see Styles; unbalanced, and non-composition, 54; zooming and, 214–15
Content, 41; panning speed matched to, 206–7; style becoming, 143
Contiguity editing, 242
Continuity (in editing), 220, 241; factual programming, 226, 229–30
Contrast, 170; harmony and, 175; high, 170, 174; monochrome viewfinders and, 190
Convergence of lines, 42, 47–8, 48, 63, 71; towards horizon, see Vanishing point
Costs in TV:; lighting, 184; multi-camera TV, 151
Coutard, Raoul, 181
Crabbing, 208; to follow background movement of another actor, 212
Cultural influences, 15
Current affairs, see News
Customary techniques in TV, 155
Cutaway, 231; and temporal relationships between shots, 239
Cut-in, 231
Cutting, see Editing
Decorative shots (news), 226
Defocused backgrounds, 40, 41, 164–5
Depth:; accentuating/emphasizing/creating, 52–3, 81; indicators, 36–41; limited, 86; reducing/eliminating, 76–7; perception of, 46; perspective, 29; in widescreen film, 106
Depth-of-field, 38, 58, 146–7; style and, 146–7; TV picture, 153
’Il Desert Rosso’, 165
Development shots, 208–12; overlong, 231
Diagonal line, 71
Digital TV service:; changeover from analogue, 99, 104, 117; widescreen aspect ratio, 99
Direct Cinema, 137
Direction:; indicators of, 75, 241; of lighting, 172
Disposable two-shot, 109
Distance:; estimating, 52; lines converging into, see Vanishing point; from object/subject (of observer or camera), 37, 38, 46–7, 57–8; choice, 47, 47–9; size and, 28, 46, 47; see also Minimum object distance
Distortion on widescreen TV, 119–20; progressive, 118
Divine proportion (golden rectangle), 93, 102–3, 124
‘Dr Strangelove’, 161
Documentary, 136–8, 156, 157; professionalism and, 138–9; storytelling techniques, 222; see also Factual programming; Interviews; News
Docusoaps, 157
Drama:; radio, having best ‘pictures’, 57; TV:; authentic period costume, 165–6; multi-camera, 151; soaps, 151
‘Drifters’, 136
Durieu, Eugene, 174
Editing, 217–50; basic conventions/techniques/principles, 218–20, 241–2; historical aspects, 5; multi-camera production, 243–5; shooting for, 217–50; basic advice, 225–32; types, 242; viewfinder as tool for, 91–2
8° lens, 153
Electronic news gathering (ENG) crews, 138
Electronic viewfinder, see Viewfinder
Entrances, cutting on, 236
Exits, cutting on, 236
Explanatory sequence, 224
Eye(s):; colour and the, 186, 187; warmness/coldness of, 192; lens of, 26, 27–8; lens of camera at level of, 44; movements (within frame/image), 14, 78–80; left-to-right, in Western art, 66, 79–80; taken it for a ‘walk’, 78–9; patterns grasped easily by/pleasing to, 54–5; as slave of attention system, 34–5; see also entries under Visual
Eye line match (in editing), 241
Fact (the record):; fiction and, 22–5, 131–2; separating opinion or comment from, 132, 134
Factual programming, editing, 218, 222–32; shot variety, 227–32; see also Documentary; Interviews; News
Factual style, see Realism
Fantasy and imagination, 20, 132
Fashion, changing nature, 15–16
Fechner, Gustav, 103
Fiction, fact and, 22–5, 131–2
55° angle on TV zoom lenses, 153
Figure and ground (background), 66–8; controlling relationship, 67–8; flip, 67; separation, 31 see also People
Film(s):; 35mm, see 35mm film; advantages over TV widescreen, 116; colourizing, 113; sensitivity, 147; widescreen, see Widescreen film; see also Cinema
Film shot, see Shot
Film-making, historical aspects, 1–16
Filters, 149; colour correction, 187–8
5° angle on TV zoom lens, 153
Five-second module, 231
Flaherty, Robert, 136
Flare, 149
‘Fly-on-the-wall’ technique, 140, 156
long:; defocused backgrounds, 164–5; space and use of, 50; style and, 145–6; zoom lens, 39
Focus, 40–1, 58; art of focusing, 40; differential, 41; follow, 40; pulling, 40; zoom lens, 40
Ford, John:; editing and, 221; ‘Stagecoach’, 1, 6, 81; ‘The Searchers’, 88
Foreground, masking, 87
Form, 13, 41, 76; contrast of, 63; see also Shape
4:3 rectangle, see Academy ratio; 14:9 aspect ratio, 113, 114; 4:3 frame expanded to, 118; zooming and, 116–17
Frame(s) (and framing), 9–10, 11, 58, 83–9; closed vs open frame technique, 85, 89; edge, 88; as reference, 87; eye movement within frame, see Eye; frames within frames, 87–9; newsreading, 88–9, 197–8; hard cut-off point, 85–6; height in frame, 36; individual innovation in framing, 247–8; influence on composition, 83; leaving, 230–1; in photographs, 124–5; safeguarding top of frame, 110–11; ‘shoot and protect’ framing policy, 114; subject size and, 80; see also Freeze frame
France, documentaries, 137
Francesa, Pierro della, 10
French documentary film makers, 137
Front surface design, 81
Gestalt theories of perception, 30, 69
Goddard's ‘Breathless’ (‘A Bout de Souffle’), 17, 181
‘The Godfather’, 196
Golden rectangle/section/ratio, 93, 102–3
‘Great Train Robbery’ (1903), 4
Greeks, ancient, 123–4; golden rectangle, 102–3, 124
Grierson, John, 156; ‘Drifters’, 136
Ground, see Background; Figure and ground; Foreground
Grouping visual elements, 59–61; by shape, 69–70
Hall, Conrad, 196
Hand-held cameras, see Cameras
‘A Hard Days Night’, 159
Harmony and contrast, 175
Height:; camera/lens, 37, 43–6, 58; eye level, 44; tracking and, 208, 214–15; in frame, 36
‘Help’, 159
High angle:; photographs at, 129; shots made at, 61, 76
High definition TV (HDTV), 98–9, 100, 103; bandwidth, 97; early development, 98–9; see also Widescreen TV
Historical aspects, 123–30; aspect ratios, 90–105; invisible technique, 1–16, 129; lighting, 177–82; style, 167
Hitchcock, Alfred:; editing and, 221; ‘Vertigo’, 48–9, 210
Hogarth, William:; line of beauty, 71; Rakes Progress, 3
Hollywood:; camera at eye level, 44; editing in golden age of, 221; narrative convention, 86
Home cinema, widescreen stereo TV promoted as, 104
‘Un Homme et une femme’, 165
Horizon (and horizon line), 43–4; lines converging towards, see Vanishing point
‘Hot’ colours, 192
Hot heads, 215
Hue, 191
180° system, 6
’Il Desert Rosso’, 165
Illumination, 174; see also Light
Image:; eye moving around, see Eye; idea expressed through, 184–5; size, constancy, 28–30; understanding an, 77–8; see also Shot
Imagination and fantasy, 20, 132
Improved definition TV (IDTV), 99
‘In Cold Blood’, 196
Informative shots (news), 226
Interest, see Attention
Interviews, 198, 232–3; cutting, 233; 16:9 shape and, 115–16; ‘Vox Pops’, 233, 237
Invisible technique:; alternatives to/rejection of, 17–25; camera movement and, 203; creation, 4–5; development, 1–16, 129; editing, 217–18, 220; lighting and, 173–4
Isolated (‘iso’) feeds, 244
‘Jaws’, 210
‘JFK’, 161
Kell factor, 97
‘The Killers’, 180
Kubrick's ‘Dr Strangelove’, 161
Kurasawa, Akira, 146
Landscape format, 87
‘The Last Emperor’, 192
‘Lawrence of Arabia’, 107
LCD viewfinders, colour, 189
Lead-in lines, curved, 72
Lean, David:; ‘Lawrence of Arabia’, 107; ‘Ryan's daughter’, 64
Left-to-right, eye moving/scanning from, in Western art, 66, 79–80
Lelouche, Claude, ‘Un homme et une femme’, 165
Lens (camera), 26–53; angle, see Angle; choice, 145; focal length, see Focal length; focus, see Focus; height, see Height; imprint, 27; perspective and, 26–53; position, see Position; production style and, 50–2, 145–6; TV camera, see Television camera
Lens (projector), in multiplexes, 110
Leonardo da Vinci:; golden rectangle, 102–3; The Last Supper, 47, 50
Lester, Richard, 159
Letterboxing, widescreen TV, 112–13
Light (and lighting), 168–85; bounced, 181 controlled, 179, 182; dark/light relationships, 169–70, 180–1, 192; decorative, 185; diffused, 176, 183; direction, 172; emphasis with, 173; hard, 171, 176; invisible, 173–4; natural/available/found, 172, 180, 182–3; see also Sunlight; past influences, 177–82; quality, 171–2; soft, 171, 172, 176, 181–2; source, 172; TV, 183–5
Line(s), 70–2; of beauty, 71; convergence of, see Convergence; Vanishing point; crossing the, 6, 230; curved, 71–2; horizontal, 42, 43; see also Horizon; lead-in, 72; leaning/diagonal, 71; panning on, 206; perspective of, see Perspective; structural skeleton, influences on, 42; tracking, finding right, 208; in TV picture, 97; HDTV, 98; vertical, 70
Linear perspective, see Perspective
Liquid crystal display viewfinders, colour, 189
Live action (incl. TV):; camera movement, 204, 205; multi-camera, 149–53, 200, 201, 204, 205; sports events, see Sports coverage; working at speed, 200–1, 248
Location shooting, 148
Long shot (distance), 152; factual information, 234
Low-tech stylists, 163
Lumet's ‘Twelve Angry Men’, 21
Lumière brothers, 2, 20, 23; factual style/realism, 20, 132
Magic (and magicians), 18–19; see also Illusion
Magic lantern, 3
‘The Man who knew too much’, 64
The Martyrdom of San Sebastian, 176
Masking:; foreground, 87; widescreen film, 107
Mass:; balance by, 62; perspective of, see Size, relationships
Medium close-up shot (MCU), 66, 152, 153; on widescreen TV, 115; panned and scanned widescreen shot turned into MCU, 109
‘Medium Cool’, 162
Metaphor, clichéd visual, 231–2
Mind (visual information and the), 31; patterns grasped easily by mind, 54–5
Minimum object distance, 146
Mirror reverse/stage left, 66–7
Monochrome, 86, 189–91; photography, 128; TV, legacy, 189; viewfinders, see Viewfinder
Morris, Errol, ‘The Thin Blue Line’, 156
Motion parallax, 36
Movement, 55–6, 202–16; blocking/plotting, see Staging, action; of camera, see Camera; of eye, see Eye; invisible, 203–8; of patterns, 73; of subject/object/action, 55, 56; cutting, 234–6; moving camera and, 210–11; static camera and, 210; synchronized, 203–4; visual elements providing strong sense of, 75; see also Action; Motion parallax; Slow-motion replays
Moving photograph, early moving image as, 2–3
Multi-camera production (incl. TV), 129, 149–53, 243–5; camera movement, 204–5, 205–6; customary techniques, 155; editing, 243–5; lighting, 174–5, 180; live, 149–53, 200, 201, 204, 205; teamwork, 244–5
Multiplexes, 110
Music videos, 63, 157–8, 204; editing, 220
‘Napoleon’ (1927), 93
Narrative presentation, see Storytelling
Narrow angle effect, 46
Narrow-angle lenses, camera movement with, 212
Natural/found light, 172, 180, 182–3; see also Sunlight
News/current affairs (and newsreading), 131–41, 197-8 222–7; editing, 222–7; in the field, 218; five-second module, 231; frame within frame and divided interest, 88–9, 197; interviews, see Interviews; objectivity, see Objectivity; operational awareness, 134–5; portable cameras, 154–5; professionalism, 138–9; staging, 197–8; storytelling technique, 222–5; unscripted items/shots, 232; structure, 225–7; values, 227; see also Documentary; Fact; Factual programming; Interviews
NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai), 98, 100, 103
‘Night of the Hunter’, 52
Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK), 98, 100, 103
Non-composition, 54
Notan, 179
Object(s) and subjects:; colour as subject matter, 188; distance from, see Distance; drawing/holding attention to main subject, 58–9, 63, 64–5, 74–5; grouping, see Grouping movement, see Movement; organization, 59–61 shape, see Shape; size, see Size; see also People
Objectivity in news, 133, 227; realism and, 135
Oblique angle shot, 48
Office Party, 177
On-the-shoulder camerawork, 160
180° system, 6
1.33:1 rectangle, see Academy ratio
Opinion and comment, separating comment from, 132, 134
Oval forms/shapes, 69
Over-the-shoulder two shot, 15, 152; widescreen TV and, 115
Overlap, 36
Painting:; mid-to-late 19th/early 20th Century, influences of, 125–8; photograph in style of painting, 124, 195–6; in style of photograph, 128–9
Pan (panning shots), 42, 206–7; 8, historical aspects, 4–5, 5; length of, 231; NYPD Blue, 159–60; whip pan, 149
Pan and scan device for widescreen film, 108–9, 121, 206-8 Pan/tilt head, remotely controlled, 215
Parallel horizontal lines receding into distance, see Vanishing point Paramount's VistaVision, 95
Patterns (structural), 73–4, 76, 81; creating and controlling, 73–4; definition, 72, 73; grasped easily by eye and mind, 54–5; static and moving, 73
People/figures (incl. actors/artistes):; charismatic, see Stars; composition, 199; multi-figure, 199; single figure, 199; two figure, 199; cutting on exits and entrances, 236; interviews, see Interviews; speed of movement of, and shot size and lens angle, 211–12; staging, 147–8, 194–5, 197–8, 199; see also Figure and ground
Perception (visual), 27–8, 30–5, 170–1, 175; abstraction in, 76–7; attention and, 33–4; characteristics, 30–5; of colour, 186, 187; cold/warm feel, 192; of depth, 46; frames and borders and, 83–4; Gestalt theories, 30, 69; problems with, 32–3; recognition in, 31–2, 76; shot transition and, 236–7; 16:9 aspect ratio and, 100–1; size constancy, 28–30; steps in, 31–2
Personal significance of shot attracting attention, 74–5
Perspective, 29–30, 36–53; lens and, 36–53; limited indicators, 86; linear/of line, 36, 42–3, 48; laws, 30; of mass, see Size, relationships; ‘normal/correct’, 48; ‘wrong/incorrect’, 48
‘Le Petit Soldat’, 181
Photography:; early, 124–5, 195–6; early moving image as moving photograph, 2–3; influences of, 124–5, 126–8; painting in style of photograph, 128–9; photograph in style of painting, 124, 195–6; two-dimensional image, 8–9
Pierro della Francesa, 10
Point-of-view shots, 242
Polanski's ‘Rosemary's Baby’, 16
Pollaiuolo's The Martyrdom of San Sebastian, 176
Pop music videos, see Music videos
Portable cameras, see Cameras
Portable field editing, 218
Porter, Edwin S, ‘Great Train Robbery’ (1903), 4
Portrait format, 87
Position/placement:; camera/lens, 6, 9; degree of convergence and, 42; emphasizing main subject, 59; factors determined by, 57–8; height, see Height; stopping before/restarting after respositioning, historical aspects, 5; style and, 145; contrast of, 63
Production style, see Style
Profanation of the Host, 37, 46
Professionalism, news/documentary-making, 138–9
Projector lenses in multiplexes, 110
‘Protect and save’ framing policy, 114
Proximity (of subjects/objects), 76; grouping by, 60–1
Pulsed zooms, 149
Punk TV style, 164
Radio drama having best ‘pictures’, 57
Rakes Progress, 3
Realism (authenticity; factual style; realistic representation), 8, 20, 21, 132, 135–6, 159–62; in early photography, 216–17; lighting and, 180, 181–2, 182; natural, 182; low-tech style and, 163; Lumière's, 20, 132; news and, 132, 133, 135–6; period costume drama, 165–6; technology, 136; uncertainty/unsteadiness and, 159–62
Rembrandt van Rijn, 178, 178–9
Recognition (in perception), 31–2, 76
Record of event, see Fact
Rectangle:; golden, 93, 102–3; >screen shape, see Shape
Red, ‘hotness’, 192
Reed, Carol, ‘The Third Man’, 87
Remotely controlled cameras, 215
Rhythm, visual, 72–3; matching between shots, 238
Riefenstahl's ‘Triumph of the Will’, 45
‘Rosemary's Baby’, 16
Rotha, Paul, 136
‘Ryan's daughter’, 64
Saccades, 78
Saturation (colour), 191
Screen:; shape of, see Aspect ratio; Shape; size (TV), see Size (TV screen)
‘The Searchers’, 88
Secret filming, 136
Sensitivity, film stock, 147
Shape, 68–9; repetition of same shape, pattern generated by, 74; screen, 90–122; composition and, 91; widescreen, see Widescreen; see also Aspect ratio see also Form
‘Shoot and protect’ framing policy, 114
Shots:; angle of, see Angle; appearance, 13; asking questions about/does it work?, 12, 58–9; boom in, 110; changing/stitching together, historical aspects, 5; close, see Close shot; content, see Content; continuity between, see Continuity; decorative (news), 226; depth, see Depth; development shot, see Development shots; disposable two-shot, 109; for editing:; basic techniques with, 218–20; length/brevity, 228–9, 231, 233–41; selection and structure/shape, 218, 220–2, 223–7; significance and appropriateness, 228–9; variety, 227–32; form, see Form; frame and framing, see Frame; historical aspects, 4; informative (news), 226; oblique angle shot, 48; over-the-shoulder two shot, see Over-the-shoulder two shot; panning, see Pan; personal significance attracting attention, 74–5; point-of-view shot, 242; rhythm, see Rhythm; sizes, see Size; space in a, see Space; square-on shot, see Square-on shot; structural skeleton, 41–3; transition, perception and, 236–7; unscripted, in news, see News; visual design, see Visual design; zooming and readjustment on, 39; see also Image
16° lens, TV camera, 153
16:9 aspect ratio, 99–104, 112–22; composing for, 115–16; 4:3 material inserted into, 118–19
Size:; contrast of, 63; relationships (perspective of mass), 29–30, 48, 75–6; camera distance and, 28, 46, 47; zooming and, 39, 46, 76, 214; of shot/size of objects and subjects, 36; changes in, moving camera during, 211; constancy, 28–30; duration of shot and, 234; editing and, 230, 234, 242; frame and, 80; group by similarity in, 61; multi-camera TV, 152–3; relationships, see subheading above; speed of actor movement and, 211–12; of TV screen, 120–1; camera viewfinder, 121
Smoke, 149
Soap dramas, 151; see also Docusoaps
Sound, 56–7; editing and, 243; 4:3 aspect ratio reduced with advent of, 93–4
Space, 47–50, 238–9, 240–1; compressing/rearranging, 239, 240–1; controlling, 47–9; creating 2D depiction of, 37–8; internal, 49–50, 50, 212; matching relationships between shots, 238–9, 241–2
Speed:; of actor movement, shot size and lens angle and, 211–12; of panning, 206–7; working at, with live action, 200–1, 248; see also Tempo
Spielberg's ‘Jaws’, 210
Sports coverage, 166; slow-motion replays, 200–1
Square-on shot, 48; square-on two shot, 62, 65
‘Stagecoach’ (John Ford's), 1, 6, 81
Staging, 194–201; action (blocking movement), 195, 196, 197–8; for multi-camera continuous coverage, 205; people/artistes, 147–8, 194–5, 197–8, 199; what is it?, 195–6
Stars, film (charismatic/celebrity artistes), 24; lighting, 179–80
Static patterns, 73
Static viewpoint of camera, see Camera
Steadicam, 215
Stone, Oliver, ‘JFK’, 161
Storaro, Villorio, 192
Storytelling (narrative presentation), 22–3, 170–1, 196; alternative techniques, 17–25; editing and, 221–5; historical aspects, 3, 4, 6–7; Hollywood convention, 86; invisible technique of, see Invisible technique; narrative sequence, 223; visual weight and, 64; see also Fiction
Studio look (lighting), 179–80
Studio shooting, 148
Sturges, John, ‘Bad Day at Black Rock’, 108
Styles (of production/composition):; building blocks, 143–8; changing, 166; flourishes, 148–9; history, 167; lens angle and, 50–2, 145–6; music videos, see Music videos; uncertainty/unsteadiness as, 159–62
Subject, see Objects and subjects; People
Subjective experiences, 20, 132
Sunlight, 191; see also Natural light
Teamwork, multi-camera production, 244–5
Technological development:; realism and, 136; style and, 144–7
Television:; advanced (ATV), 99; aspect ratios, see Aspect ratios; colour, see Colour TV; high definition, see High definition TV; improved definition (IDTV), 99; lighting, 183–5; live, see Live action; monochrome, legacy, 189; pan and scan conversion of widescreen films for, 108–9, 121, 206; viewers needs’ and new forms of, 92; widescreen film shown on, dealing with problem of, 108–10, 112–19
Television cameras, 129; lenses, 153–4; height, 44; lens angle and focal length, 145; multiple, see Multi-camera production
Temperature, colour, 187
Tempo (sequence), 200, 224, 242–3
Temporal aspects, see Time Texture gradient, 36
‘The Thin Blue Line’, 156
‘The Third Man’, 87
30° system, 6
35° lens, TV camera, 153
35mm film:; super, 110–11; as universal standard, 92–3
Three-colour theory of perception, 187
Three-dimensional image:; 2D image from, see Two-dimensional image; compensating for loss of third dimension, 81
Tilt (camera), 37, 42, 43, 58; Dutch tilt, 87; see also Pan/tilt head
Time (temporal aspects) in editing, 223, 239, 240–1; matching relationships between shots, 239; rearranging/compressing, 223, 239, 240–1; shot lengths, 228–9, 231, 233–41
Todd AO, 96
Tone:; contrast of, 63; matching between shots, 239–40
‘Tootsie’, 147
‘Top Hat’, 61
‘A Touch of Evil’, 45, 181, 210
Tracking, 207–8, 208, 214–15; camera/lens height for, 214–15; finding right, 208; line for, finding right, 208; zooming and, 210; composition distinction between, 214; transition between, 209
Triangular forms/shapes, 69
Tripods, early use, 5
‘Triumph of the Will’, 45
‘Twelve Angry Men’, 21
Twentieth-Century Fox's CinemaScope, 94, 95–6, 106, 120
24° lens, TV camera, 153
Two-dimensional images (camera conversion from 3D images), 8–9, 41; compensating for loss of third dimension, 81; creating 2D depiction of space, 37–8; perception and, 32–3; in viewfinder, see Viewfinder
Uccello's Profanation of the Host, 37, 46
‘Un Chien Andalou’, 23
USA, see America
Value (reflectivity), 191
‘Vampyr’ (1976), 7
Van Eyck, Jan, 178
Vanishing point(s) (lines converging towards horizon), 42, 47–8; placement, 47–8; two/three/multiple, 42–3
Vérité style, 156
Vertical line, 70
Video camera:; amateur use, 162–3; multi-camerawork, 152; portable/hand-held, 154–5, 215; realism and, 160–1; zoom, 39
Video diaries, 163
Video format, international/universal, 92, 99
Viewfinder (and its two-dimensional image), 86; colour, 189; as editing tool, 91–2; limited depth and perspective indicators, 86; monochrome (electronic), 86, 121, 189–91; problems, 189–91; zooming and widescreen working and, 116
Vignettes, 149
Vista Vision, 95
Visual communication, 175; control of/achieving, 175; requirements, 14
Visual design, 54–82; matching between shots, 237–8; techniques, 15, 59–61
Visual metaphor, clichéd, 231–2
Visual perception, see Perception
Visual puzzles, 158
Visual rhythm, see Rhythm
Visual styles, see Styles
Visual weight, 62–3; narrative element and, 64
Wajda, Andrejz, 165
‘Warm/cold’ colours, 192
Welles, Orson, 1; ‘Citizen Kane’, 2, 146; ‘Touch of Evil’, 45, 181, 210
Wexler, Haskell, ‘Medium Cool’, 162
Whip pan, 149
White balance, 187
Wide angle effect, 46
Wide angle lenses and shots, 63–4; actor movement in, 212
Widescreen film/cinema (and its aspect ratios), 91, 93, 94–6, 101, 104, 106–11; advantages, 107–8, 116; composition, 106–11; pan and scan conversion, 108–9, 121, 206
Widescreen TV, 92; aspect ratio, see Aspect ratio; compilation programmes on, 119; composition, 112–22; viewer control, 117–18; viewer needs and, 92; see also High definition TV
Wildlife features, 156
Willis, Gordon, 196
Wipes, 149
Zanuck, Darryl, and CinemaScope, 106
Zoom (and zooming), 39–40, 207, 214; in Hitchcock's ‘Vertigo’, 48–9; pivot point and, 207, 208; pulsed zooms, 149; size and, 39, 46, 76, 214; tracking and, see Tracking; TV, 154–5; introduction, 154–5; widescreen, 116–17; widescreen working and, 111; TV, 116–17; zoom lens angle, 39; zoom lens extender system, 39–40; zoom lens focusing, 40; zoom ratio, 39
Zukor, Adolph, 120