Setting It All Up: Scenic Tools and Materials

CHAPTER SEVEN

IN THIS CHAPTER

Tools

Supplies

Study Words

OK, enough with all this theory stuff. Are you ready to dive in and learn about tools? And yes, I know you may already know what some of them are. This book is all about theatre, so we’ll look at tools from that specific perspective. There are many variations on the basic tools. We’ll take a look at the most common ones you will find in a scene shop, and keep in mind this is by no means a comprehensive list of every tool ever made. I’ve put them into four main categories that follow the schedule for building. That means we’ll explore tools that measure and mark first. Secondly, we’ll look at tools that cut. And third, we’ll look at tools that assemble. Lastly, we look at pneumatic, or air powered tools. Are you ready? Let’s get started.

TOOLS

The first and most important thing we need to talk about before we look at any individual tool is their safe use. The manufacturer for each tool will issue some kind of a manual with operating instructions. This manual will include not only the safe and intended use for the specific tool, but also any safety precautions you need to take in order to operate the tool in the manner they intended. Please continue to reference the safety chapter (Chapter 6) as well as any available manuals. Safety first!

Within each of the three categories, there are many different tools. Every tool has an intended purpose. The key is to match up the right tool with the right job! As you go through this list, there will be tools that are appropriate for more than one job. Keep in mind that each job is specific; you have to know how to pick the right tool for the right job. This is the only way to get the job done safely. We’ll look into this idea more within each category. As you go through the rest of this chapter you’ll see many photos of tools. Keep in mind that every style of tool can have many manufacturers. I can only show one version of each tool, so if you see more than one tool in a certain brand, realize I am not showing a preference for that brand.

So, you walk into the scene shop and are given a drawing of a flat to build. On the side of the drawing is a list of the wood you will need to cut. You walk over to the lumber rack and pull out a piece of wood. What is the first tool you are going to reach for? Well you have to measure the wood to know where to cut it, right? Measuring and marking tools come with a wide range of options. Let’s look at them one at a time. We’ll start with one more kind of pencil that we haven’t discussed before.

MEASURING AND MARKING

In addition to the pencils we’ve already discussed, there is such a thing as a carpenter pencil. This is different from a regular pencil in its shape and graphite. Its shape is a flattened octagon that prevents it from rolling. The graphite is thicker and stronger than a regular pencil that comes in handy when writing on wood instead of paper. You cannot sharpen this in a pencil sharpener; most people just use their pocketknife.

The tape measure we are most used to seeing these days is the self-retracting pocket tape measure. Its flexibility allows you to measure long lengths while still allowing it to be easily carried in your pocket. Now you’ve probably all seen a tape measure, right? The tape measure is easy to read. A tape measure blade is usually marked both in inches and in feet. At the end of the blade is a metal edge called a tang. This tang is intentionally left loose to compensate for measuring outside dimensions versus inside dimensions of objects. Also, the case of the tape measure is usually labeled with its length, so that if you are measuring an inside dimension, you will know how much to add for an accurate measurement.

FIG. 7.1
(1) 300-foot tape measure, (2) 50-foot tape measure, (3) 30-foot tape measure, (4) folding ruler, and (5) metal ruler.

Well, before we had today’s version of a tape measure, there was the folding rule. The folding rule is sort of a combination of a regular ruler and a yardstick. It is made up of small sections in 6-inch increments connected by a pivot point. This allows for the whole length of the rule to compress and make it small enough to easily fit in your pocket or bag. The folding rule is the granddaddy of today’s tape measure. You will still see these occasionally in the shop, and every once in a while they are still the perfect tool!

The latest development in tape measuring is the laser measure. This is a totally amazing piece of equipment. Laser measuring can be more accurate than a traditional tape measure. Human error is all but eliminated. In most cases you just press a button, the laser emits its beam until it hits a solid surface, and then a digital display shows the distance measured. You can usually measure indoors and outdoors. The key to a laser measure is that you can measure in those hard-to-reach places.

Sometimes a tape measure won’t quite do everything you need. Perhaps you are not doing a simple measurement, but more of a layout, drawing square shapes and so forth. The next line of tools that can help with this is the framing square, combination square, speed square, and sliding bevel gauge. Let’s take a look at these one at a time.

Framing squares are very versatile. They can vary in size, but the average looks like a big L with the long side being 24 inches long and the shorter side being 16 inches long. They are made of metal. They are the most accurate of our squares because they have a fixed angle; there are no adjustments you can make. If you need to draw or measure a 90-degree angle, then this is your tool. A great deal of our initial layout in theatrical design is based on the 90-degree angle. This is the best tool to start with.

The combination square is our next tool to discuss. As the name implies, this differs from the framing square in that it is adjustable. Not only can the combination square handle 90-degree angles, it can also help you draw 45-degree angles. Another benefit is that you can loosen a knob and slide the square’s head along the ruler, then tighten it down at a different location on the rule. This allows you to transfer measurements from one place to another. The sliding head of the square contains a level. This can be very useful for certain types of measuring.

Next is the speed square. This is a metal triangle containing both 90-degree and 45-degree angles. There are measurement markings along the sides. The important difference between the speed square and other types of squares is that the speed square has a flange on one side that you can use to hold it square against the edge of your material.

When you are working with angles, you will need to measure an angle from a drawing or sample piece of research or scenery. The sliding bevel gauge is used to check or copy the angle of an existing unit or drawing. It consists of a handle or stock and a blade or tongue, connected by a wing nut. You place the handle against a straight edge, and by rotating the blade you can match the angle of what you are trying to copy. A wing nut is loosened so that the blade can rotate to a variety of angles. This nut is then tightened to hold this new angle. It can then be used to copy an angle from part of a unit to the next. Please note that this tool does not measure an angle. It simply copies the angle from something that already exists.

FIG. 7.2
(1) Framing square, (2) tri-square, (3) combination square, (4) speed square, and (5) protractor.

The compass is another tool for measuring. I think most of you have seen a compass. It consists of two pointed arms joined at the top by a pivot point. The end of each arm can contain a sharpened metal point. A pencil can replace these points, or other writing device as needed. A compass can have two different purposes. The primary purpose it to draw a circle. The secondary use is to measure a given distance and then copy that distance in equal-length segments.

FIG. 7.3
(1) Large homemade compass, (2) compass with pencil, (3) compass with lead, and (4) bevel guide.

Levels are the next kind of tool. There are spirit or bubble levels, string levels, plumb bob, and laser levels. They all measure whether a surface is level or plumb, but they all do it in a slightly different way. The spirit level is so named because the little vial containing liquid is actually partially filled with ethanol. There is enough room left in the vial to create a bubble and this bubble is what we use to determine plumb. By placing the level on either a horizontal or vertical surface, the bubble will line up with one of the calibration marks on the vial.

A string level is fairly accurate for basic stuff. You use a string that is pulled fairly taut between two points in the area you are trying to measure. The string can’t sag. This is the key. You hang the string level onto the string and watch to see where the bubble lands with the vial. It’s the same basic idea as a regular spirit level.

A plumb bob can be used if you are trying to determine a level line from one point only. That means you can attach a string to the top of a wall. Let the string drop down with a plumb bob attached to the bottom. The plumb bob is a weight and will stop swinging at the point of making the string level. You then adjust the angle of the wall until everything lines up.

The laser level is similar to the laser tape measure in how it works. Some laser products are self-leveling, via a spinning sensor. Others are done manually and you’re responsible for getting it set up. Once the setup is complete, you push the button and a laser emits its beam. The cool part is that the beam remains level as it goes into the distance. This is a great tool if you need to line up several items along the same line across a distance.

The chalk line is the next and last tool we will discuss in this category. A chalk line is an almost diamond-shaped container containing a very long string and powdered chalk. It is used to mark a straight line between two points. You must measure and mark where you want the line to be. Shake the chalk line to make sure the chalk inside has coated the string. Then you stretch the string, holding it taut at both ends. Make sure you are lined up with your measurements. Snap the line once by pulling it up away from your surface about 5 to 6 inches and letting it go. When it snaps back down it will hit the surface with enough force to transfer the powdered chalk along the string to your scenery. You now have a line of chalk that can be used as a guide for cutting, painting, nailing, or pretty much anything.

FIG. 7.4
(1) Plumb bob, (2) small spirit level, (3) string level, (4) plumb bob, (5) spirit level, (6) large spirit level, and (7) laser level.

CUTTING AND SHAPING

Now that you are all measured and marked, what is next? Cutting. We will break cutting up into several smaller categories. There will be hand tools that you hold in your hand when there is no power source other than your own muscles. Then we will discuss power hand tools and power stationary tools as they relate to cutting. Our last topic will be welding torches that can cut metal.

All of these tools are meant to cut. Some are meant to cut wood, some metal. All cutting tools will cut a variety of things indiscriminately. They aren’t designed to cut one thing and not another. Does that mean you can use a utility knife to cut a piece of wood. Yes, but it’s not a smart choice and I don’t recommend it. Keep in mind that the tool can’t tell what it is cutting. This means that if skin, tendon, muscle, and bone get in the way, the tool will most likely keep cutting. So choose the right tool for the job and use it safely. My father told me something a long time ago that I have always remembered. He said, “Don’t fear tools, respect them.” This basically means know what the tool can do, but more important, know what the tool can’t do. Choose the right tool for the right job!

FIG. 7.5
A chalk line with evidence of its use!

Wood-Cutting Tools and Saws

The most basic cutting tool we have is the pocketknife. You may have one of these in your pocket right now. They are simply designed. There is a blade that rotates out from inside the handle. When fully closed you can’t see the blade, and more important, there is nothing sharp sticking out to hurt you.

The utility knife or mat knife is next. This type of knife comes in a metal or plastic handle. The blade is retractable meaning it stores completely in the handle. It uses a two-sided blade. This means when the blade gets dull you can open the handle, pull out the blade, turn it around, and put it back in. Now you will have a brand new sharp edge to cut with.

Scissors or shears can be used for a lot of cutting. We all know about scissors. It’s a tool with blades on two opposing sides, one facing up, the other facing down, joined at a pivot point somewhere between the blades and the handles. The scene shop often has to cut paper or fabric as a beginning preparatory step to other parts of the process. It’s not all about wood. But now that we’ve mentioned wood, none of the tools we talked about so far would work very well on wood. So let’s start exploring.

Before we get into the individual saws, let’s discuss the different kinds of saw blades. Blades for cutting wood come in one of two varieties of teeth: crosscut and rip. The basic idea is that rip blades cut parallel to the grain and crosscut blades cut across the grain. It sounds easy but take a look at the difference between the blades visually. The crosscut blade has a much harder job to do. It should look much more fierce … and it does!

FIG. 7.6
(1) Snap-off utility knife, (2) open utility knife showing blades, (3) utility knife, (4) carpet or linoleum knife, (5) Xacto knife, (6) box cutter, (7) pocketknife, (8) scissors, and (9) razor scraper. Don’t take these to the airport!

There are also different materials the blade can be made out of that affect its use. High-speed steel blades are usually used for wood and the occasional light metal. Cobalt steel blades are harder and will last longer, also holding the sharp edge better. Carbide blades are generally used for masonry board. Scrolling blades are typically the narrowest of this type and are appropriate for tight turns while cutting. Keep in mind you should never plan to stop a saw blade in the middle of a piece of wood. Always finish the cut before turning off a saw. The various people-powered saws we will discuss are the hand saws, miter saws, coping saws, flush cut saw, and keyhole saw.

Hand saws first. There are two basic kinds. I bet you’ve guessed why. There is one style for crosscutting wood and another style for ripping wood. The handle and the metal blade can be identical. The difference between the two is the teeth on the blade. Always look at a hand saw when you first pick it up so that you know which saw you’ve got, and more important, whether or not it is the right tool for the job you are about to do.

Mitering is making a joint, or corner, by combining two angled pieces of wood to make a third angle. It takes two separate pieces of wood with 45-degree angles that combine to make a 90-degree angle. A miter saw uses crosscut teeth. Miter saws are often used in conjunction with a miter box. A miter box has precut slots in it to guide the saw into a certain angle. This precision is critical or the miter won’t turn into the correct angle needed for the project.

FIG. 7.7
Notice the difference in the teeth patterns between the rip and crosscut saw blade teeth.

FIG. 7.8
(1) Coping saw, (2) keyhole saw, (3) miter saw, and (4) hand saw.

The next saw is the coping saw. The coping saw has a handle with a U-shaped steel frame. The very thin blade is held between the arms of the U. Turning the handle tightens or loosens the tension on the blade. Holders at either end of the blade can also be pivoted so that you can adjust the angle of the cut. Coping is similar to mitering. It is fitting two pieces of wood together when both pieces have an irregular surface. This usually refers to molding, whether on the wall or a picture frame. The coping saw allows you to make these kinds of cuts in very tight spaces, especially since there tend to be inside corner joints.

The flush cut saw has a handle with the blade coming straight out of one end. The blade is very flexible, cuts flush with the bottom surface, and has a very fine set of teeth that cut in one direction. That means the saw will not cut on both the push and pull. It will only cut as you pull the saw toward you. This is used for detail finishing. Another benefit of the flush cut saw is that you rarely have to sand the wood afterwards due to the fine teeth.

The keyhole saw, or drywall saw, is a long, narrow saw used for cutting small awkward holes into a variety of building materials. The blade is secured into the handle by one or two screws. One recent modification to the keyhole saw is the addition of a sharpened point on the tip of the blade. This allows for jabbing the saw through soft materials such as dry wall in order to begin your cut.

Metal-Cutting Saws

We are now going to change from saws that cut wood to saws that cut metal. Metal cuts very differently than wood. The blades on these saws have teeth much closer together and much sharper. Keep in mind we are still talking about hand tools with no power source other than you and me. OK, let’s talk about hacksaws, tin snips, pipe cutters, tube cutters, pipe reamers, and pipe threaders. A quick safety note: Metal, especially the newly cut edges, can be very sharp. Be sure to wear goggles and work gloves when handling or cutting it.

Hacksaws are the one metal-cutting saw that most of you are already familiar with.

It is a metal handle shaped in an arch with two places to attach the blade. The blade is both narrow and rigid. The teeth are angled, and the blade can be installed in the handle in either direction. This allows you to choose whether you will cut on the push or the pull motion. The replaceable blades come in a variety of types depending on your exact purpose.

Tin snips are used to cut thin sheets of metal. They work under the same premise as scissors, two opposing blades coming together. Tin snips come with different blade designs: straight cutting, left cutting, and right cutting. Your individual project and material will inform your decision as to which is the correct tool. Use tin snips as you would use scissors on heavy cardboard. As you cut, open the jaws of the snips fully, and make cuts as long as possible. Avoid snapping the jaws closed completely at the end of the cut, as this will nick the edges of the metal.

Pipe and tube cutters are very similar. Some look like a big pair of bolt cutters. You put the pipe or tube between the blades and squeeze the handles together. The other style is shaped like a C with a handle coming out of the bottom. You twist the handle, which tightens the pressure into the pipe. This forces the sharp blade into the pipe while wheels around the clamp continuously rotate the pipe. The pressure from the rotation is much stronger than you could possibly do on your own! Pipe cutters are rated by the type and size of pipe they can cut.

FIG. 7.9
(1) Pipe cutter, (2) PVC cutter, (3) reamer, (4) conduit cutter, (5) threader, (6) tin snips, and (7) hacksaw.

Pipe reamers are used whenever a pipe is cut. Both the inside and outside of the cut edge may retain burrs, little pieces of sharp metal that can block the pipe from fitting to another piece of pipe. To remove the burrs from the inside of the pipe, use a reamer. Reamers are usually cone shaped with some sort of ratcheting handle. They have many cutting edges that remove the burrs on contact. Reamers are as sharp as the burrs, so be very careful! Now that your pipe is cut and free of burrs, you will need a pipe threader. Your newly fabricated pipe may need to screw into a coupling or flange or some other type of mounting hardware. To do this you need to create threads that will screw into the other piece of hardware.

Powered Hand Tools

Next we’ll talk about hand tools for cutting that have an external power source—either a battery or they plug into an outlet. We will discuss jigsaws, spiral saws, reciprocating saws, circular saws, router, grinder, and drills. Before we go any further, let’s remember that power tools require steps taken to ensure safety. Always wear eye and ear protection when using these tools! Also keep in mind that the blades can get bound up in the wood as the tools cut. If this happens, the saw will most likely want to kick back toward you. A good firm hold on the tool will go a long way to controlling this should it happen. Being aware of this will keep you safe!

FIG. 7.10
On the left is a jigsaw and on the right is a spiral saw.

The jigsaw, also know as a saber saw, has a small straight blade that cuts with an up and down motion. Because of its small blade, it is great for cutting curves and not as good for cutting straight lines. To cut a straight line will require some kind of guide. The guide is often called a fence. Different blades are available for cutting ceramic, leather, linoleum, plastic, wallboard, metal, and hardwood. Variable-speed blades and an adjustable foot for cutting at different angles are options that are important to have. You can think of the jigsaw as a powered version of the keyhole saw.

Reciprocating saws have a straight blade mounted at one end of the body. The blade moves back and forth (that is where they get their name), much like the action of a jigsaw. Reciprocating saws are much more powerful and versatile than jigsaws. A variety of blade options means they can cut through almost anything. The brand name Sawzall® by Milwaukee Tool has become synonymous with this type of saw. This saw is perfect for big rough cuts that might then be followed up with a jigsaw to refine the final look.

A circular saw is one of the more popular portable tools in the shop. It gets its name from the circular saw blade that it uses. It is designed to make long, straight cuts. This saw can crosscut or rip wood. The bottom foot can be angled to allow for a consistent angled cut. As with most of the tools in this category, circular tools can be corded or run from batteries. If your saw has a cord, please, please, make sure to always know where the cord is. Running over the cord is a very bad thing!

Routers are tools that typically cut grooves or decorative trims along the edge of a piece of wood. Think picture frame. Instead of a blade, like most of the saws we’ve been talking about, a router has a bit. This bit is shaped just like the shape you will be cutting out, and is sharp on all edges. The shapes you can cut out are limited only by the number of router bits you have. To route a straight line you will use a straight fence. Routers typically rotate their bit in a clockwise motion. That means it is best, and safest, to cut from left to right. If you are left handed, like me, this means you have to adjust your normal hold on the tool in order to operate it safely. Experiment with this idea before using the tool for the first time.

A grinder is a tool that drives an abrasive disc that is mounted to a geared head. The abrasive disc can be replaced when it becomes worn. The different discs can also be used for a variety of tasks such as cutting, sawing, and even buffing. These discs are intended primarily for metalworking. This particular tool requires different safety protocols. A face shield should always be worn and gloves, respirators, earmuffs, long sleeves, and hard hats are highly suggested, depending on what you are grinding.

Powered Stationary Tools

Our next category is powered stationary tools. Stationary power tools differ from what we’ve been discussing by the fact that they are built into a table or stand of some sort. You will bring your materials to the tool, not the other way around. The same safety precautions for eyes and ears that we’ve already discussed are to be used here as well. We’ll discuss table saws, radial-arm saws, panel saws, band saws, scroll saws, and the chop saw/compound miter saw.

FIG. 7.11
A variety of circular blades and straight blades for saws, and router bits.

The table saw is possibly the most-used tool in the whole scene shop. It works similarly to the circular saw in the last section. It is mounted in a table that gives it more stability and allows for a more powerful engine. A rip saw blade is usually installed. The tabletop gives stability to the wood you are cutting, allowing you to cut bigger pieces of wood more easily. There is a fence that helps you line up your wood and keep it straight. There is a blade guard that keeps you physically separated from the blade—a very good idea! The table saw has many other custom accessories that you can check into for helping with various types of cuts. This is a powerful and very useful tool.

Radial-arm saws also work similarly to a circular saw. A crosscut saw blade is usually installed. The blade head is suspended from a long arm, thus the name, in a yoke that allows for selectable degrees of rotation. There is a handle for moving the blade head forward and back while cutting the wood. If you need to cut many pieces of wood to the same length, you can set up a jig or guide, at the correctly measured distance. The table saw and radial-arm saw complement each other perfectly.

Panel saws were originally used primarily by cabinetmakers. However, their use is also perfect for the scene shop. A panel saw is basically a circular saw with a big bracket on it to allow for movement across a large-scale predetermined grid. They can be either horizontal or vertical, although most scene shops prefer the vertical one to save space. Cutting sheets of plywood into smaller pieces is this tool’s specialty. Today there are even computer-controlled panel saws that can make multiple cuts, and then repeat them from one piece of wood to another with amazing accuracy. For repeated 90-degree cuts, this is the fastest way to do it.

Band saws are useful for cutting wood or metal into nonlinear shapes. A band saw is a unique tool in that the blade is one continuous loop, or band, stretched over two pulleys. The blade operates by moving in one direction continuously. It has teeth on only one side of the band. You move the material through the saw to create your design. Different bands are available for wood and metal as well as with coarser and finer teeth. Keep in mind there is no blade guard so safety is more of a concern here. However, the designs you can achieve are unique to the band saw.

Scroll saws are used for freehand cutting of intricate shapes in fairly thin wood. The scroll saw uses thin blades, similar to a jigsaw, to allow for the small radius needed to complete these designs. The band saw can do many of the same things, just not in as fine a degree of detail. This is the right tool if you need to create delicate inlaid designs. Scroll saws have size designations that are determined by the distance between the blade and the back arm. Like the band saw, there is no blade guard, so be careful! The band saw and the scroll saw complement each other very well.

The chop saw/compound miter saw is a very versatile tool. You can probably guess that just from its name. Chop saws have a circular saw blade just like a circular saw. Originally chop saws worked by having a pivoting arm containing the blade. The arm came down and cut, then went back up to its resting location, similar to a radial-arm saw but in the other direction. Newer chop saws still do this, and much more. They will now also pivot around to become a miter saw. The newest addition to this tool is an arm that also turns the saw into a radial-arm saw as well. Just remember that the more a tool can do, the more you have to be aware of its proper use in order to keep safe.

A new advance in the development of cutting tools is the table router. This is a very expensive piece of machinery. Remember the hand router? Well picture that on a huge horizontal table. Then picture it is computer controlled. You can now upload a CAD file to the router’s memory, and it will cut the exact design that has been drawn! This is not only amazing to watch, but also an unrivaled advancement in using technology in the scene shop.

FIG. 7.12
(a) Panel saw, (b) scroll saw, (c) table saw, (d) radial-arm saw.

There is another type of cutting we haven’t addressed at all yet.Oxyacetylene welding, commonly referred to as gas welding, is a process that relies on the proper combination of oxygen and acetylene. This usually is a very specialized department, but I will touch on it briefly. The equipment needed for oxyacetylene cutting and welding is very portable and easy to use once you have been thoroughly trained. Oxygen and acetylene gases are stored under pressure in steel cylinders. These cylinders are fitted with regulators and flexible hoses. The gases are then mixed together in the correct proportions to create a hot flame that can cut through metal. When welding, the operator must wear protective clothing and tinted colored goggles. This is nothing to play around with, but can be a very good tool in the right hands.

ASSEMBLY

We are now going to segue from cutting and shaping tools to a category I call assembly. Once all your materials are cut out into the proper sizes and shapes, the next step is to put it all together into something that resembles the original drawing. We’ll break these tools into the same basic categories as the cutting tools: hand tools, power hand tools, and power stationary tools.

Hand Tools

Hand tools for assembly include the claw hammer, framing hammer, ball peen hammer, mallet, tack hammer, dead-blow hammer, nail set, center punch, stapler, and pry bar. Then we’re going to move on to all kinds of wrenches. We’re still talking about hand tools. Keep that in mind. Here is the list of wrenches: adjustable wrench, open-ended wrench, box wrench, speed wrench, pipe wrench, nut driver, socket and ratchet, Allen keys, Yankee screwdriver, screwdriver (flat versus Phillips).

Let’s deal with all the hammers at once since they all do a similar job. At their simplest, hammers are intended to push things together or take things apart. Keep in mind that the metal head of the hammer will not only push a nail into wood, but it will also dent the wood. If you are concerned about damaging the wood, make sure to use some kind of buffer between the tool and the wood. Hammers can also be used for many other jobs that were not intended for them. Be aware that the hammer’s main job is pushing nails into wood and pulling them back out.

FIG. 7.13
(1) Claw hammer, (2) framing hammer, (3) ball peen hammer, (4) mallet, and (5) tack hammer.

The claw hammer is most common and standard of all the hammers. This is the hammer you will see the most in the scene shop. It has a metal head for striking a nail, or whatever else you need to hit, and a curved claw for ripping nails back out of the wood. The head usually weighs about 16 ounces, but can vary quite a bit. Framing hammers, on the other hand, are much heavier and are meant for larger nails and harder woods. Carpenters putting up the framing of a house originally used them, so that is where they get their name! The claw is not as curved as on a claw hammer and the head usually weighs about 22–28 ounces. A tack hammer is a much smaller hammer, usually used for the detail work on finishing projects. Small nails and tacks with very small heads are the perfect use for this tool. The head usually weighs between 5–8 ounces, much smaller than what we’ve been discussing so far.

The ball peen hammer has a much harder head than other hammers. Because of this it is used mainly on metal instead of wood. “Peen” in the dictionary definition talks about drawing, bending, or flattening. The ball end of the hammer is used for shaping. So think about it. You have a hammer metal to bend, flatten, or shape metal. Sounds pretty handy, huh?

FIG. 7.14
(1) Sledge hammer, (2) dead-blow hammer, and (3) hatchet.

Dead-blow hammers may sound dangerous, but they are actually pretty cool. They are unique in that the head is filled with metal shot. This gives the hammer extra force on impact and very little recoil or bounce back. What does that really mean? Well, when you swing the hammer to hit something, the metal shot in the head sort of swings with your swing, adding momentum. It also means that when the hammer hits something, the metal shot helps it to stay in contact with the object. All of this adds up to a much more forceful strike with less effort! They also have a soft head that won’t damage your project.

Mallets are another type of hammer with a soft head that helps to avoid damaging delicate surfaces. The head of a mallet is also substantially larger than a regular hammer and this helps to spread out the force of the hit. If you are hammering into a finished surface, a mallet may be the better choice than a claw hammer as it is less marring to the surface.

A nail set is often used in conjunction with a tack hammer. It is made of metal with a flat surface on either end. The nail set is used for driving the head of a nail either flush or just below the finished surface. Line up the nail set with the nail head; use a hammer to hit the nail set forcing the nail head into the wood. This gives you a smooth surface for painting or other finishes. The center punch is used in a similar way to the nail set. The difference is that it has a sharp, pointy end. It is used, primarily on metal, to mark a starting point for drilling into the material. Once you have used the center punch, it is much easier to begin drilling into metal without the drill slipping.

We all know what a stapler is, right? Well this type is a little different than what you probably have sitting on your desk. A stapler binds things together by forcing thin metal staples into the material with pressure. But you already knew that. What you may not know is that staples come in a variety of sizes and you must make sure to choose the right size for your job. What you may also not know is that there are a variety of staplers. They vary in size similar to the actual staples, but they also vary in how you load them, how you hold them, and what they look like. Always make sure the staples and stapler are meant to work together. Otherwise the stapler will jam and cause you many headaches. We’ll discuss this later in the chapter.

There are many different kinds of pry bars. Pry bars are made of metal and both ends are designed to be used for different purposes. Some pry bars have unique names like “wonderbar,” and are made only by certain manufacturers. They are used as leverage for separating objects. Some pry bars are meant to remove nails and do minor lifting. Some are bulky enough to be able to perform demolition. Your scene shop will most likely have several types. Be aware of the capabilities of each in order to choose the right tool for the right job.

The adjustable wrench is often called a crescent wrench, and with good cause. We are talking about an open-ended wrench with one fixed jaw and one adjustable jaw. The adjustment works by a screw positioned within the handle. This allows you to grasp any size nut or piece of hardware to loosen or tighten it. Although the wrench is shaped like a crescent, that is not where it gets its name. Its name actually comes from the original manufacturer, Crescent Tool Company, which began production in upstate New York in the early 1900s. Crescent® is a brand name, but it is used interchangeably for an adjustable wrench, as is the phrase C-wrench. Nowadays, adjustable wrenches are made by a wide variety of manufacturers and they are indispensable to the theatre technician!

The nonadjustable type of wrench is called an open-ended wrench. The open-ended wrench fits a specific size of hardware and has an open end usually angled at a 30-degree angle away from the handle. This allows a greater range of motion when trying to tighten or loosen a nut. A box wrench has a closed end and will only fit one size of hardware. The box often has between 6 and 12 points of contact to the hardware, which makes for a much more secure hold as you are trying to move the hardware.

A speed wrench is similar to a box wrench with one major exception. It contains a ratchet on both ends. This is what “speeds” up your usage and how the wrench gets its name. A ratchet is a device used to restrict motion in one direction. This happens by the use of a gear inside the head of the wrench that engages in one direction to tighten or loosen hardware as required. On the backswing of the handle, the gear disengages, which allows it to reset with moving the hardware. Ratchets often have a lever that allows motion to be either clockwise or counterclockwise.

FIG. 7.15
(1) Adjustable wrench, (2) speed wrench, (3) pipe wrench, (4) box wrench, and (5) open-ended wrench.

FIG. 7.16
(1) “Catspaw” pry bar, (2) large pry bar, (3) nail set, (4) center punch, (5) stapler, and (6) flat pry bar.

The pipe wrench is meant for gripping round objects like, well, pipe, so it’s design is a little different. Primarily it is used for metal pipes, thus its name. It has an adjustable jaw similar to the adjustable wrench. It closes and opens by screwing itself tighter as the wrench clamps down on the pipe. When putting two pieces of pipe together, or putting a pipe into a base, the pipe wrench is the essential tool.

There is a range of tools for tightening and loosening small fasteners. Keep in mind, as always, that although several tools may actually be able to do what you want; they are not all appropriate for the job. In this category, using the wrong tool can actually damage or destroy the fastener! Let’s look at each of the tools in this small category.

Sockets and nut drivers work in similar ways. A socket set is a handle and a series of replaceable heads. Each head has an opening on one side; each opening is a different size to correspond to different sizes of bolt heads and nuts. Sockets work with a ratcheting technology that allows you to loosen or tighten the bolt or nut quickly. A nut driver, on the other hand, is a single tool, handle, and head in one that does not ratchet. These normally come in a set with various sizes.

Allen key is a brand name having a hexagonal head for adjusting nuts with a recessed six-sided opening. You may have used one of these if you ever purchased self-assembly furniture. Allen keys can be bought as a single key, as a loose set, or as a full set packaged together within a shared handle.Torx® is also a brand name for a type of screw with a six-pointed star on the end. You may have heard of a star screwdriver—that is what this refers to. The Torx has better points of contact and therefore you tend to damage the screw and your tool less than with an Allen key.

Now that we’ve gone through all of these “modern” tools, let’s go back to the basics, the screwdriver. First, let’s take a quick look at the Yankee screwdriver. It is also referred to as the “push screwdriver” and is an older style. This screwdriver has a spiral center so that when you press down on the handle the head turns the spiral center so you can drive in or back out a screw by just pushing down on the handle. They have become less popular over time, but they are still out there.

Screwdrivers, as we know them today, have either a slotted or Phillips head. Slotted screws have a single straight indent in the top.Phillips screws have an X indented into the top. Slotted and Phillips screws come in different sizes, which we’ll talk about later in this chapter. Just be aware that you must fit the driver to the screw. Stripped screw heads are the biggest problem to overcome, but most of the time it’s the driver you choose and not the screw that creates the problem. Avoid the whole mess by choosing the right screwdriver for your projects. Using a driver that is too small or too large will strip the screw head or damage the driver. Both are bad. Stripping a screw head means rounding out the slot or Phillips indentation. If this happens you won’t be able to easily tighten the screw or get the screw out again.

FIG. 7.17
(1) Nut driver, (2) socket wrench, (3) Yankee screwdriver, (4) slotted screwdriver, (5) Phillips screwdriver, and (6) Allen key Set.

Let’s continue with hand tools in a slightly different direction by discussing ways to hold things during the assembly process. We will discuss linesman’s pliers, slip-joint pliers, needle-nose pliers, vise grips, hand-screw clamp, bar clamp, spring clamp, carriage or carpenter clamp, and vises.

Linesman’s pliers are your basic, average, all-around great pair of pliers. Linesman’s pliers are very strong. They are great for holding, bending, and forming. Linesman pliers’ jaw surfaces are slightly toothed for better gripping. The jaws also have a built-in side-cutter tool.Slip-joint pliers are similar to linesman pliers with one major difference. The joint that holds the two sides together is keyed so that the jaws can be opened wider as needed for certain jobs.Needle-nose pliers are good for smaller jobs. They are basic pliers, like the rest that we’ve talked about so far. The difference in their design is that the gripping end is not flat but comes to a small narrow point. This makes them great for holding much smaller items with more precision.

Vise grips have an adjustable locking mechanism. If you are trying to loosen or tighten hardware where you will be using two tools, one to hold something in place and one to do the bulk of the work, vise grips will lock their grip and hold it tightly for you, freeing up one of your hands to do the rest of the job. They come in a variety of sizes and shapes that makes them applicable for many jobs.

The hand-screw clamp is an older style of clamp that is still used today. It is great when you need to be careful not to destroy your surface. This clamp is easy to recognize by its two heavy, broad wooden jaws. Passing through the jaws are screws with reverse threads at the ends so the jaws come together rapidly. Hand screws are available with jaw lengths from 4 to 16 inches. Bar clamps have a fixed jaw and a sliding jaw that makes them easily adjustable to different lengths. The determining factor of their usage is the bar they are attached to—the longer the bar the bigger an object they can clamp!

Spring clamps are identified by the size their jaws can open. They are clamps that are strong and lightweight. They differ from the hand-screw and the bar clamps in that they tighten and loosen based on a spring’s tension. These clamps usually feature soft, durable pads to protect fine finishes. They can be used on everything from wood to fabric. The last style of clamps is the carpenter or carriage clamps. They are the basic clamps you’ll find in a scene shop. They are shaped like a C with a screw that tightens and loosens. They can leave marks on wood, so they are usually used when that is not a factor.

FIG. 7.18
(1) Linesman’s pliers, (2) tongue and groove pliers, (3) slip-joint pliers, (4) fence pliers, (5) vice grips, and (6) needle-nose pliers.

Vises are made from metal and are usually attached to a shop bench for stability. There are two jaws on the top that are usually fairly wide and smooth. By turning a screw the jaws are brought together, thereby holding whatever has been caught inside. The screw can be loosened to reposition the object being held and then retightened. The vise can be closed quite tightly so that your work can be held very firmly.

There are also various shaping tools to choose from during the assembly process for fitting and detailing. These are primarily chisels, planes, rasps, and files. Each has their differences not only in how they are used but also in their shapes and way of working. Let’s look at each group separately.

FIG. 7.19
(1) Hand-screw clamp, (2) squeeze clamp, (3) small flat bar clamp, (4) round bar clamp, (5) carpenter clamp, and (6) flat bar clamp.

A chisel is a tool with a cutting edge on its end. It is used primarily for carving and cutting hard materials like wood, stone, or metal. The sharp edge of the chisel is forced into the material, usually with a hammer or mallet. Chisels can have different shapes on their cutting edge. Some shapes are straight while others are more U shaped and meant to gouge out pieces of the object.

A plane is used to flatten, reduce the thickness of, and smooth a surface to a generally rough piece of lumber. Planes usually have a cutting edge on the bottom that is then attached to the solid body of the plane. You move it back and forth over the wooden surface while the cutting edge removes uniform shavings a little at a time. This is a slow process where all the pieces of the wood (usually at a joint) eventually become level.

A rasp is another woodworking tool for shaping the wood. It is made up of a long, narrow steel bar. There is a handle on one end while the rest of the rasp has triangular teeth cut into it. When drawn across a piece of wood, it will shave away parts of the wood, very coarsely. A file is very similar to a rasp. The major difference is that a file has much finer teeth. The amount of wood removed is much smaller, and it is overall a gentler process.

Powered Hand Tools

Let’s move on to electric assembly tools with the same purposes as those hand tools we’ve just discussed. We’ve got the main tools and then one big group of accessories: drills, drill presses, hammer drills, and drill bits. Since this whole section is about drilling, let’s talk about the basics of drilling for a second. A drill is a tool for making holes. The drill is a motor that can rotate the drill bit forward or in reverse. The size of the hole is determined by the size of the drill bit that does the cutting. The drill bit is held in place on the front of the drill by a chuck. The chuck is a hole in front of the motor. You insert the drill bit into the chuck and then tighten it, using a chuck key.

Electric drills have many different options and capabilities. The chuck size can vary for holding larger drill bits, they may have variable speed motors for both forward and reverse, and the newest addition is torque control. Drills operate on either battery or regular electricity. All of these options make this a versatile tool for the scene shop. Cordless, battery-powered drills are most popular as they are more flexible without the need to be tethered to an extension cord.

A hammer drill looks similar to the electric drills we discussed previously. It works in a similar way with a drill bit that does the cutting. The added option in a hammer drill is that the chuck creates a short, rapid hammer-type action to break through hard or brittle material. This significantly speeds up the drilling process. Hammer drills are used mostly when working with masonry or stone.

The drill press is a stationary tool that does the same job as a regular drill. It has the added advantage of being mounted over a tabletop. There is usually a large handle on the side that moves the drill bit up and down into the material you are drilling. Since the drill is at a fixed angle and so is your material, you are guaranteed to drill the exact same hole every time. This works out great for making multiple holes when working on a large project.

FIG. 7.20
(1) Course rasp, (2) combination rasp/chisel, (3) half-round file, (4) flat file, (5) triangular needle file, (6) wood chisel, (7) hand rasp, (8) hand plane, and (9) ultra-course rasp.

FIG. 7.21
(1) Cordless drill, (2) corded drill, and (3) hammer drill.

OK, on to drill bits. Drill bits come in many sizes as you can imagine, but they also come in different shape styles. The bigger the hole you need to make, the stronger the drill bit needs to be! To choose the right bit, you need to know what material you will be drilling into as well as the size of the hole you need to make.

FIG. 7.22
(1) Belt sander, (2) palm sander, and (3) detail sander.

The basic drill bit you are most accustomed to seeing is the twist bit. This bit is a straight bit with spiral twists down its length. The front edge of each spiral is a cutting edge. The spiral design helps to remove the debris from the hole as you drill. These bits are usually made from high-speed steel, carbon steel, or tungsten carbide, and can be used on wood, metal, or plastics. Titanium nitride is a coating sometimes used to increase the bit’s hardness. But that is way too much chemistry stuff. All bits are marked in their packaging so just look for the info! Different manufacturers have different size ranges, but twist bits are usually available in a variety of sizes from inch to 1 inch.

FIG. 7.23
(1) Router, (2) reciprocating saw, (3) grinder, and (4) circular saw.

FIG. 7.24
(1) Hole saw, (2) auger bit, (3) spade bit, (4) forstner bit, and (5) twist bit.

Spade bits are the next category. They come in larger diameters as well as longer lengths than regular twist bits, allowing for larger holes to be made. Spade bits are designed differently than twist bits. They have a straight shaft with a rectangular bottom that comes to a point. Think of a shovel (a.k.a. spade), and you’ll get the visual. Spade bits are usually available in sizes ranging from inch to 1 inch. Forstner bits are starting to be used as an alternative to spade bits. They are sharper due to their design. They also have a rim instead of a center point that makes for easier positioning. All of this combines to make a cleaner hole and also make them safer to use.

Need to make an even bigger hole? Hole saws make even larger holes. These are no longer constructed in the same manner as a single drill bit. Think of a band saw blade, then make it smaller in diameter and you’ll be close to what a hole saw looks like. A piece of thin metal wrapped in a circle with teeth added on one side. These are awesome to work with. There is usually a small twist bit in the center of the hole saw. This allows you to get the hole started in the exact place you want it. Then the hole saw starts working! Sizes for hole saws usually range from inch to 5 inches.

The last bit will we will talk about is not a drill bit but a screw bit. These are one of the most important items in the scene shop. Before their invention, all screwing was done by hand. I’m sure you’ve all used these. They come in slotted and Phillips, and in different sizes. Sometimes you can even find ones that are magnetic, which can be very helpful when you are working in tight spaces and the screw tends to drop off the screwdriver before you get it started! This is also really handy for keeping the screw on the end of the bit to begin with.

Our last tool fits into many categories and no categories all at the same time. It is the hot-glue gun. Hot glue is an amazing thing and has changed how we do many things in the theatre. You’ve probably seen these in craft stores, stationery stores, hardware stores, and maybe even grocery stores. They are very handy for a number of reasons. The basic idea is that you plug in the hot-glue gun and it begins to get hot. Hot glue is a plastic material that is solid at room temperature, but melts into a sticky fluid when heated. You insert a stick of solid hot glue into the gun. When you pull the trigger or push the glue in, the glue stick advances and begins to melt. Use it as you would any other adhesive since all the glue has to do is cool down to produce a fast bond. Keep in mind that if it gets heated up again, it will lose its holding power. Big safety note: Hot glue is really, really, hot! You can burn yourself, so be careful.

Pneumatic Tools

So far we’ve discussed hand tools and electrically powered tools. Now we’re going to move on to pneumatic tools, specifically nailers and staplers. However, a big disclaimer, almost all tools that are electric also come as pneumatic. Nailers and staplers are two of the most used in most shops. However, there are many, many pneumatic tools that can be useful. Chisels, ratchets, grinders, and jigsaws are just a few of the many options. Learn the technology first and the tools will follow!

Pneumatic tools require a compressor to generate air pressure. Compressors have regulators on them that allow you to set the pressure your tool requires. The compressor then manufactures a high pressure, sending the air down the hose to the tool at the end. Think of holding a garden hose and putting your finger over part of the opening. Remember how the water pressure increases? It’s not exactly the same, but it is similar.

This higher air pressure forces the nail or staple out of the gun and into whatever material you are working with. This is one of the fastest ways to work, once you are properly trained on the equipment. Keep in mind that there are different safety guidelines for this type of equipment. Make sure to follow the manufacturer’s guidelines for safe use. Also make sure you are trained properly before beginning!

Pneumatic tools come in a wide variety of types with differing styles and features. Nailers are specifically designed to take certain lengths and weights of nails. Staplers are the same way. You will load a “clip” or a “cartridge,” which contains varying amounts of nailers or staples. Make sure that you have the right clip for the tool! This is really important. If you use the wrong nails or staples it won’t just jam; there is the possibility of the nail shooting out at the wrong angle and hurting you or someone else!

When working with metal we need slightly different ways of joining pieces together. Please keep in mind that working with metals requires a completely different set of tools and skills than working with wood. Certain things about working with metal are much more dangerous than wood. If your shop has a metal working area, make sure you are fully checked out on the equipment before even attempting to make a project.

Earlier we discussed the use of oxyacetylene for cutting metal. Now let’s look briefly at the variety of ways to join metals together. Welding is the most common way of permanently joining metal parts. A generic description of this process is heat applied to metal pieces, melting and fusing them to form a permanent bond. There are many types of welding.

Welding Tools

Arc welding is the most common type. Standard arc welding involves two large metal alligator clips that carry a strong electrical current. One clip is attached to any part of the project being welded. The second clip is connected to a thin welding rod. When the rod touches the project, a powerful electrical circuit is created. The massive heat created by the electrical current causes both the project and the steel core of the rod to melt together, cooling quickly to form a solid bond.

FIG. 7.25
Hot-glue gun.

Two common, but advanced, types of arc welding are Tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metal inert gas (MIG) welding. TIG welding is used with stainless steel or aluminum. While TIG uses welding rods, MIG uses a spool of continuously fed wire, which allows the welder to join longer stretches of metal without stopping to replace the rod. In TIG welding, the welder holds the welding rod in one hand and an electric torch in the other hand. The torch is used to simultaneously melt the rod and a portion of the project’s material. In MIG welding, the welder holds the wire feeder,which functions like the alligator clip in arc welding.

Like arc welding, soldering and brazing use molten metal to join two pieces of metal. The main difference between them is that the metal added during the process has a melting point lower than that of the material, so only the added metal is melted, not the material. Soldering uses metals with a melting point below 800° Fahrenheit; brazing uses metals with a higher melting point. Because soldering and brazing do not melt the material, these processes normally do not create the distortions or weaknesses in the project that can occur with welding. Soldering commonly is used to join electrical, electronic, and other small metal parts. Brazing produces a stronger joint than does soldering, and often is used to join metals other than steel, such as brass.

FIG. 7.26
Pneumatic tools: (1) pneumatic grinder on the left and pneumatic air nozzle on the right, (2) pneumatic coil nailer, (3) air compressor, and (4) pneumatic brad nailer.

CLEANING UP

OK, so the set is finally built. You’re ready to move on to the next project. What is the first thing you should think about at this very moment? Clean up! That’s right. If you don’t clean up, you will be making your next project in the middle of a mess. You’ll also suddenly realize you can’t find any of your tools. And wait a minute … there is no room to lay anything out. Have I made my point? At the end of every scheduled shop time, there should be a clean-up period before people head home. If everyone works together it should only take about 15 minutes.

There is one tool left to talk about. It’s for cleanup. It is technically referred to as the wet/dry vacuum. I’m sure you’ve all seen one, but just in case, let me describe it. It is a vacuum cleaner with a substantial tank for collecting whatever you’re cleaning up. And when I say “whatever,” I mean it. They are called wet/dry for a reason. With the flick of a switch, depending on the brand, you can go from vacuuming sawdust to water! They are rated based on how much liquid the canister will hold. Some models will also change from vacuuming to blowing. This can be very handy in all sorts of circumstances.

We are now at the end of our tool discussion. Keep in mind what I said at the beginning of this chapter. This is only a small sampling of what is out there. Keep on the lookout for other tools that may make a certain job easier. Many tools may be able to do a similar job, but it is dependent on the individual situation as to which one is right for the job. Also, always keep in mind the safe way to use these tools. I will stress this all the way through this book, which is the same thing I do when I’m teaching. It’s amazing how quickly a situation can turn from being fun as soon as someone gets hurt.

FIG. 7.27
Various gas tanks, gauges, and hoses for welding setups.

SUPPLIES

We’re going to leave the tools behind for a little bit and explore some of the supplies that are out there. Once you are familiar with all the different options for materials and hardware that are out there, we’ll go on to the next chapter where we will put it all together and start talking about building techniques. So let’s begin with wood.

WOOD

Wood is probably the most commonly used building material in theatre. Even with the advent of new technologies, there is still a huge amount of building and fabrication out of wood. Let’s deal with some basic information about wood. There are hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods come from deciduous trees or trees that lose their leaves in the fall. Hardwoods are trees like cherry and maple as well as trees like oak, ash, or poplar. Softwoods come from evergreen trees. The most popular of these is the pine, cedar, fir, and spruce. For theatre we tend to stick mostly to softwoods for our projects. They are most often affordable and available.

Dimensional Lumber

There are two different cuts of wood we will be using: dimensional lumber and sheet lumber. Dimensional lumber refers to solid wood that has been milled into standardized sizes that are then used primarily for framing. Examples of this are probably common to you. Ever heard of a 2 × 4? That is only one example of dimensional lumber. Sheet lumber on the other hand is a composite of wood and glue that dries under pressure, sometimes with a hardwood veneer, sometimes not. As the name suggests, sheet lumber comes in large sheets, usually 4 × 8 feet. There are also different thicknesses, anything from to ¼ to ½ to inches.

Dimensional lumber comes in a variety of sizes as well as grades. Let’s talk about the different sizes now. There are many sizes of milled lumber available. As with the tools, I will only discuss the most common sizes used in theatrical building. Now here is the confusing part, what we call a 2 × 4, is not actually 2 inches × 4 inches. Also notice that I didn’t use the inches on the first usage of 2 × 4. That is technically a name, and doesn’t refer to the actual dimensions. Here is a chart that compares the nominal size (what we call it) against the actual size.

Nominal Size	Actual Size
1 × 3	3/4″ × 2½″
1 × 4	3/4″ × 3 ½″
1 × 6	3/4″ × 5½″
1 × 8	3/4″ × 7½″
1 × 10	3/4″ × 9½″
1 × 12	3/4″ × 11½″
5/4 × 4	1″ × 3½″
5/4 × 6	1″ × 5½″
5/4 × 8	1″ × 7½″
5/4 × 10	1″ × 9½″
5/4 × 12	1″½ × 11½″
2 × 4	1½″ × 3½″
2 × 6	1½″ × 5½″
2 × 8	1½″ × 7½″
2 × 10	1½″ × 9½″
2 × 12	1½″ × 11½″
4 × 4	3½″ × 3½″

FIG. 7.28
Photo of a lumberyard showing outdoor storage.

FIG. 7.29
As You Like It at NYU Department of Graduate Acting/Department of Design for Stage and Film in February 2005. Director, David Hammond; Scenic Designer, Arthur R. Rotch; Costume Designer, Courtney McClain; Lighting Designer, Joshua Benghiat.

FIG. 7.30
Photo of a dimensional lumber, clearly labeled and organized by size, in storage.

Sheet Lumber

We’ve now gotten to sheets of wood. There are several different kinds we use in theatrical construction. They are plywood, lauan, homosote, masonite, and MDF. What is wrong with that last sentence? One of the examples is not actually wood … read on to find out more! Let’s look at a brief explanation of each and a listing of what thicknesses they are available in.

Plywood is graded differently than dimensional lumber. With plywood, the front and back of the sheet are graded separately. The front is graded with letters A, B, C, or D. A shows an excellent appearance, similar to the clear-grade dimensional lumber. B allows for minor natural characteristics to show through, similar to the select grade in dimensional lumber. C and D allow for unlimited color variations, knots, and repairs. In some ways this is similar but somewhat poorer quality than the common grade for dimensional lumber.

The back of plywood is rated using a slightly different system. Numbers 1-4 are used. Numbers 1 and 2 provide for surfaces with all openings and/or repairs to be smaller than inch. Number 3 provides for some open defects, meaning not repaired. This could include knotholes or splits and joints. Number 4 allows for open defects up to 4 inches in diameter. Plywood is commonly available in 4′-0″ × 8′-0″ sheets. It is also occasionally available in 4′-0″ × 9′-0″ and 4′-0″ × 10′-0″. Common thicknesses are ¼, , ½, , , and 1 inches. You get the idea. There is a lot of flexibility in ordering plywood.

Lauan is a tropical hardwood plywood product and is pronounced loo-on. The name lauan comes from trees found in the Philippines but has become a generic term in the United States for imported tropical plywood. As this is a tropical wood, it comes mostly from the destruction of rainforests. Whenever possible, try to substitute another wood! If you must use lauan, it comes in 4′ × 8′ sheets in thicknesses of ¼, ½, and inches.

Homasote is a type of wallboard made from recycled paper that is compressed under high temperature and pressure and held together with glue. Its primary use in the theatre is as sound proofing, either on top of platforms or as part of walls. Homasote is commonly available in 4′-0″ × 8′-0″ sheets, and occasionally in 4′-0″ × 10′-0″. Common thicknesses are ½, , and inches.

Masonite is a wood by-product formed by taking wooden chips, blasting them into long fibers using steam, and then forming them into boards. These boards are then pressed and heated to create the finished product. The long fibers give masonite a very high strength and stability. All of this combines to make a great product, which is incredibly heavy. Masonite is commonly available in 4′-0″ × 8′-0″ sheets, and occasionally in 4′-0″ × 9′-0″ and 4′-0″ × 12′-0″. Common thicknesses are and inches.

FIG. 7.31
(1) -inch Masonite, (2) -inch plywood, (3) -inch plywood,and (4) -inch plywood.

MDF, otherwise know as medium-density fiberboard, is made from wood fibers glued under heat and pressure, similar to masonite. The main difference between the two is that masonite is very dense, and the MDF is medium dense. This affects the weight and the cost! There are a number of reasons why MDF may be used instead of plywood. It is dense, flat, stiff, has no knots, and is easily machined. Because it is made up of fine particles it does not have an easily recognizable surface grain. MDF can be painted to produce a smooth quality surface. However, MDF can be dangerous to use if the correct safety precautions are not taken. MDF contains a substance called urea formaldehyde, which may be released from the material through cutting and sanding. This can cause irritation to the eyes and lungs. Proper ventilation is required when using it; masks and goggles should always be worn at all times. MDF is commonly available in 4′-0″ × 8′-0″ sheets, and occasionally in 4′-0″ × 9′-0″ and 4′-0″ × 12′-0″ sheets. Common thicknesses range from 1 to 2½ inches.

MOLDING

That pretty much wraps up the typical wood types. Let’s talk about molding for a little while. Although molding is primarily made of wood, it is also made from other material, which is why I saved it until the end of this part of our discussion. Molding falls into five basic categories: baseboard, paneling, chair rail, picture rail, and crown or cornice. From floor to ceiling there are a number of places for the use of molding on walls. Typical placement for molding on walls is the cornice, picture rail, chair rail, and baseboard.

Moldings can be made from any number of types of woods, as well as MDF and even a flexible resin. The really great thing about moldings is that separate pieces can be joined to form a totally unique piece of finished molding. You can also combine bought molding with other pieces you have made from dimension lumber with the use of a router. Take a look at the following figure showing molding pieces sold by Dykes Lumber, and you will see the variety of what is available.

METAL

We will be moving from wood to metal next. This is going to be somewhat short and to the point. Metal is much more dangerous to work with than wood. Most school shops don’t have a metal working area. Here is the basic idea from the professional shops. They have a whole separate area of the shop, and separate personnel, dedicated to metalworking. Steel and aluminum are most commonly used. Steel is less expensive. Aluminum is much lighter, but also more difficult to work with.

FIG. 7.32
Pelleas Et Melisande at the Metropolitan Opera. Director, Jonathan Miller; Scenic Designer, John Conklin; Costume Designer, Clare Mitchell; and Lighting Designer, Duane Schuler.

As I have said throughout this chapter, look at all the choices for materials that are available, and then decide which is the more appropriate for your design! Metals can be fabricated into any shape you need. The potential for “custom” needs is much higher with metal than wood. Always defer to metal fabricators for advice and consultation before beginning any project of this type.

There is one metal I will address, as it is not necessary to have advanced skills in metalworking to use it. It is a personal favorite of mine: chicken wire! Chicken wire is a wire mesh that is usually used for making fences to keep in, you guessed it, chickens! It is fairly thin wire, very flexible, and easy to cut with the proper tool. When you need to make organic shapes, like trees, rocks, and mountains, chicken wire can be bent and twisted to form the basic shape. It can then be stuffed or covered, and finally painted. It is an old-fashioned way of doing this type of building— it is inexpensive, supplies are easily available, and almost any skill level can do it!

FIG. 7.33
Molding stored horizontally by style. All ends are labeled with the design number.

FABRIC

Enough of this wood and metal stuff, let’s move on to the softer side of scenery. Although any kind of fabric you can imagine can be used in the theatre, there are a few of “standard” fabrics that are used commonly in the scenic realm. They are, in no particular order, velour, duvetyn, muslin, and scrim. Let’s discuss each one’s characteristics and uses.

Velour

Velour is a very plush fabric with a similar feel to velvet. It comes in a variety of colors and thicknesses. The thickness of velour, or any fabric, is measured in ounces per linear yard. Velour is made in different ways. It can be 100 percent cotton to 100 percent polyester to anything in-between. The average width is 60 inches. The plushness is due to velour having a “nap.” Think of nap in the same way as you think of wood grain. It doesn’t really matter which way you use it, unless you are putting panels side by side. The nap has to all run the same way.

Duvetyn

Duvetyn has a brushed matte finish and is therefore very different in feel than velour. It is 100 percent cotton, usually 54 inches wide, and comes in many colors. The most popular color is black. Duvetyn is much less expensive than velour and is used as a cheaper substitute for masking. Duvetyn is sometimes called commando cloth. Although they are similar, there is a difference. Duvetyn tends to be lighter weight, 8 ounces. Commando is heavier, starting at 10 ounces and can be as heavy as 16 ounces.

Muslin

Muslin has many uses in the theatre. It is a 100 percent plain-woven fabric, and is primarily used as a base for other things. In costumes, muslin is used to make samples from patterns or as base layers that fancier fabrics are put on top of. In scenery, muslin is used to cover flats as well as for drops. More on flats and drops later. Muslin comes in widths from 44 inches to 39 feet. Yes, feet! It is an inexpensive fabric in regular widths but can become quite expensive in the much wider widths. It is available in three general weights: light, medium, and heavy. As opposed to other fabrics it is not classified by ounces.

FIG. 7.34
Les Troyens at the Metropolitan Opera. Director, Francisco Zambello; Scenic Designer, Maria Bjornson; Costume Designer, Anita Yavich; and Lighting Designer, James Ingalls.

FIG. 7.35
The 2005 Theatre de la Jeune Lune production of The Little Prince, directed by Dominique Serrand.

Scrim

Lastly, let’s talk about scrim. Scrim is somewhat of a specialty fabric, but it is so commonly used that I want to include it here. It is an open-weave netting, which means there is more open space than fabric. There are several different styles of scrim. The most common is called shark’s tooth scrim. There is also bobbinette, filled scrim, and netting. They vary by the openness of the weave as well as the pattern of the weave. The really cool thing about scrim is that depending on the lighting, you can either see through it or make it appear opaque. It is great for doing big reveals or for making things look like they are very far in the distance.

FIG. 7.36
Many different fabrics are used in the theatre. These are just a few of the samples.

FOAMS AND PLASTICS

Styrofoam® … you know what it is. You’ve seen it. It comes in shipping boxes to keep fragile things safe. And then you throw it away, right? Technically Styrofoam is a trademark name. The actual name is extruded polystyrene—not near as fun, but accurate!

Foams

Well, the white Styrofoam you are used to seeing is actually called “bead foam,” because it is made up of tiny beads compressed together. It has great insulating properties and also resists moisture. Have you ever noticed that if you break off a piece, you can see the little beads? The beads are always the drawback, as you couldn’t easily get a smooth edge. It is also hard to paint! Well, this foam used to be used all the time for creating various 3D designs. Any design ideas that require organic shapes will have to be fabricated using a number of materials that will allow for that kind of freedom.

Enter the wonders of pink and blue foam. They are both denser than bead foam. The different colors have different densities and different insulation factors. Neither of those means anything to those of us in the theatre. We can pretty much use them interchangeably. These foams can be cut, joined, and carved to create almost any shape. However, a word of caution: If these foams are heated up or even sanded vigorously they can give off toxic and noxious fumes. Even breathing in the powder after sanding is a hazard. Make sure to use a respirator as needed when working with this material.

Ethafoam rods are another form of foam that we use. They are round and come in a variety of diameters and lengths. They are bendable and easily cut and shaped. They are made through a different process than the other foams we’ve discussed making them much safer to work with and use.

Plastics

There is a wide variety of plastics, silicones, and other materials that are also used for scenic and prop fabrication. Most come in similar sizes and shapes to what we have already discussed. Key differences to look for between similar materials are:

•   Sizes and shapes.

•   Weight.

•   Strength and weight bearing.

•   Tools and skills required.

•   Price.

•   Availability.

HARDWARE

Let’s move on to hardware, starting with fasteners. Once you’ve gotten the material, cut it to size, and shaped it, you are ready to put things together. One of the most important things to remember is that you want the fastener to penetrate at least three-quarters of the way through your material. Halfway isn’t strong enough to hold well, and all the way leaves the possibility of a sharp tip sticking out and hurting someone! Three different parts can help to identify all nails, screws, and bolts: head, shank, and tip. We’ll discuss the differences below.

FIG. 7.37
Blue sheet foam on the left with white bead Styrofoam on the top right and ethafoam rods on the bottom right.

Nails

Nails—we all know what they are. We know what they look like. We have all used them. But are you aware of how many different kinds there are? Nails, pins, tacks, brads, and spikes are all different names for nails. The head style of nails varies from round to nonexistent. Some nails have two heads so that once you have hammered it into wood, there is another head sticking out which makes it easier to remove later. Shanks, for the most part, are smooth and round. Tips are pointed and sharp. Variations are all based on individual combinations of size, length, and diameter, as well as the head style.

Penny Size	Length (in.)	Length (mm)
2d	1	25
3d	1¼	32
4d	1½	38
6d	2	51
7d	2¼	57
8d	2½	65
9d	2	70
10d	3	76
12d	3¼	83
16d	3½	89
20d	4	102
30d	4½	115
40d	5	127
50d	5½
60d	6	152

On a side note, nail sizes are designated by the word “penny,” which is indicated by the “d” after the size. This is based on a very old custom of selling nails in quantities of 100. The cost of the nails—6 penny, 10 penny, 20 penny— is how we now refer to that size of nail.

Screws and Bolts

Screws and bolts, we all know them as well. And we’ve all used them. Head styles vary from pan, to round, to button, to truss, to flat. Another part of the head is the provision for turning the screw. There are various styles for this as well: slotted, Phillips, Torx, and hex. The shank has a thread formed on the surface that either partially or fully covers the shaft, and also varies depending on the individual screw and the material it is intended for. Screws are identified using three numbers: the first is the diameter of the screw or bolt, the second number is the dimension between the threads, and the third is the overall length of the screw.

FIG. 7.38
Nail styles vary to include length, diameter, head style, etc. There is a nail for every job, so make sure to use the correct one for yours!

The tip can also vary. Tips that are pointed are tapping screws and their shaft tends to be tapered. These types of screws include wood screws, lag screws, sheet metal screws, dry-wall screws (probably the most popular in the theatre), and screw eyes. Tips that are flat require predrilling and usually have shafts that are nontapered. These types include bolts, hex bolts, machine screws, eyebolts, carriage bolts, and thumb screws.

FIG. 7.39
There are so many types of bolts it is amazing. They vary in length, width, screw thread, and head type.

Washers and Nuts

Screws work great by themselves. But bolts need a little extra help to stay put! A washer is a thin disk with a hole in the middle (think donut) and is used as a spacer between the bolt and the nut. Nuts come in various outside shapes, but the insides are round, threaded, and sized to match the bolt they will be used with. The bolt is put into the material from one side, washers can be used at either or both sides, and then the nut is put on the other side from the bolt. As the nut is tightened, the material and hardware compress into a tight fit.

As with everything else, there are a variety of washers and nuts depending on the job you are doing. Washers can be plain, toothed, or cupped. Nut styles are hex nut, square nut, wind nut, cap nut, and T-nut. All work slightly differently and it is important to know the different kinds. The actual use comes from learning from others and experience. Just keep your eyes and ears open, as it is easy information to pick up.

Staples

Staples—again we all use them to hold paper together. The same basic design works in the scene shop as well with some minor modifications. First let’s talk about the parts of the staple. We can break it down into the crown, the leg, and the teeth.

FIG. 7.40
There are as many types of washers and nuts as there are bolts. Maybe even more. Here is a small sampling.

FIG. 7.41
Each part of the staple has a name. The different dimensions for these parts determine which staple to use for a job.

Staples come in a wide range of sizes, and are much easier to produce than nails, screws, or bolts. Since they don’t go into the material as far, they are not structural. But they are good for attaching thinner materials like fabric! The sizes vary in both the crown and the leg dimensions.

Adhesives

There are several different kinds of adhesives that are used in theatre. Drying adhesives are glues that, as they dry, the solvent they are made with evaporates. These are white glue, wood glue, Gorilla® glue, and Sobo®. Another adhesive group is contact adhesives. This group is applied to both pieces of material and allowed to dry a bit before joining the two items. These are rubber cement and contact cement among others. Reactive adhesives are those where you mix two different compounds together and they change each other to form an adhesive. Epoxy is an example of this. Let’s talk about each one in a little detail.

White glue is your basic school glue. You’ve all used it. It works well, dries clear, and has a medium strength. Wood glue is very similar, but much stronger. Sobo and Gorilla glues are both brand names. Sobo is white craft glue. It dries faster than regular white glue, can be frozen and thawed repeatedly, and is water soluble. Gorilla glues are strong like wood glue, they are 100 percent waterproof, and easy to sand or paint.

Rubber cement—we all used it in elementary school. Remember, it was fun to play with once it dried. You could roll over it with your finger and play with it? Yeah, that is the stuff! Well, it is a very good adhesive even if you don’t play with it. Use the brush in the cap of the can, spread rubber cement on both pieces of material, and wait for it to dry a bit, then put the items together. Contact cement works in a similar way.

Epoxy is the last adhesive we’ll discuss. Epoxy is a two-part adhesive. By mixing equal quantities of each part together you create a chemical reaction that forms epoxy. The two parts individually are fairly inert. When combined they form a very strong adhesive.

FIG. 7.42
Staples come in a variety of sizes and shapes depending on what type of stapler you will be using. Putting the wrong staples in the stapler will cause it to jam and cause a potentially dangerous situation.

Hinges

The next topic is hinges. The most common usage for a hinge that you have seen is most likely for a door. Hinges allow for something to pivot on a given point for a specific degree of rotation. Sound complicated? Not really. Let’s talk about the different kinds of hinges, with examples, to make it easier to understand.

One of the most basic of “options” with any hinge is the pin. Do you want the pin, or pivot point, to be fixed with the hinge or removable? There are reasons for each choice. Obviously a fixed-pin hinge is very sturdy and strong as it is manufactured together. A loose-pin hinge does not make as rigid a pivot point. However, once each side of the hinge is attached to scenery, the loose pin can be removed and the one big item can become two smaller items. This is very handy for shipping, storage, and the general running of the show. Keep this concept in mind as we go on to the specific kinds and shapes of hinges.

Strap hinges are an older style of hinge. They are most often used on large doors, like on a barn. When laid flat they look like two H triangles joined by a pivot. The design of these hinges makes them incredibly strong. T-hinges are similar to strap hinges. A T-hinge has one side shaped like a triangle while the other side is rectangular. Sort of makes it look like a … T!

A back flap hinge is one of the most commonly used hinges in theatre. Each side of the hinge is roughly square and there are usually three holes in each side for screwing into. A broad butt hinge is slightly smaller than a back flap. A broad butt hinge is rectangular in shape, about half the size of a back flap, and usually has two screw holes.

Piano hinges are named for … well … pianos. Think of the top lid on a piano. It’s got that long, skinny, thin hinge with lots and lots of tiny screws. Well, that is a piano hinge. It is the perfect tool when you need a long uninterrupted length of hinge, either for the aesthetic of it or for the stability. Double-acting hinges can swing their door both in and out, which makes them very unique. Think of old Western movies. Remember the doors on the saloons? Now you’ve got the image!

FIG. 7.43
(1) All-purpose tacky glue, (2) Duco^® cement, (3) Sobo craft glue, (4) wood adhesive, (5) Elmer’s glue, (6) Elmer’s wood glue, (7) Gorilla glue, (8) 2-Part clear epoxy, (9) PVC cement, and (10) PVC primer.

Casters

Our last topic in this chapter will be casters. Yes, that is right, we’ve finally gotten to the end! A caster is a wheel within a mounting assembly and makes movement of heavy pieces of scenery much easier. So you’re going grocery shopping, and you always seem to get the shopping cart that won’t steer properly? Blame it on the caster!

There are a wide variety of types and styles of casters. Let’s address the two basic differences, and the one thing you have to decide first when selecting a caster. Will your piece of scenery travel in a straight line? Or does it need to turn a corner or move in different directions? If you only need movement in one direction, a fixed caster is for you. If you need multiple directions of movement, then choose the swivel caster. Swivel casters can rotate 360 degrees, but keep in mind there is always a turning radius, or the amount of time and space the wheel needs to rotate.

The size of the mounting plate and the size of wheel are two of the determining factors when choosing a caster for a job. Another factor is the material the wheel is made from. Wheels can be made from metal, plastic, rubber, or wood. The last factor that should be considered when choosing a caster is whether or not you need it to lock. When you combine these four factors, you can roll almost anything, almost anywhere. Overall weight and sound are major factors with these choices. As with any hardware, know your application and choose what will work best, within your budget, of course.

FIG. 7.44
(1) Cabinet hinge, (2) loose-pin broad butt hinge, (3) chest hinge, (4) decorative cabinet hinge, (5) T-hinge, (6) fixed-pin broad butt hinge, (7) small loose-pin broad butt hinge, (8) strap hinge, (9) back-flap hinge, (10) gate hinge, (11) spring hinge, and (12) nonmortised loose-pin hinge.

FIG. 7.45
(a) Furniture slides, (b) rigid caster, (c) swivel caster, (d) swivel caster with screw mount, (e) swivel caster with brake, (f) heavy-duty low-level casters, (g) low-profile double-fixed caster, (h) low-profile double-swivel caster, and (i) tri-way swivel turtle.