Is This Thing On?: Sound |
CHAPTER
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IN THIS CHAPTER
We’ve dealt with the visual, let’s move on to the aural! There are many aspects to what sound can do for a theatrical production. At the very least, sound can reinforce the spoken word. Sound can also add direction and effects, just to name a few. With the advent of digital technology, the impact sound can have has drastically improved. Sound can now follow a performer around the stage, or around the entire theatre. Digital delays can ensure that audiences of 50–50,000 all hear the same thing at the same time.
Over the past 10–20 years, people’s ears have grown, or least their hearing has. The general public is accustomed to hearing sound that is very crisp. Now everyone wants to hear like they are wearing digital headphones. So basically, the audience’s expectations have gone up—way up. This means the sound designer in today’s theatre has several parts to their design. Depending on the production, the designer’s responsibilities can range from playback of sound effects, reinforcing the performers, and providing an intercom package.
Interesting Quote:
For better or for worse, the story is the most important thing. It is up to me to enhance that, but never overshadow it.
—Kai Harada
SOUND BASICS
Let’s talk for a moment about some basic sound ideas. Acoustics refers to the inherent sound qualities of a room in regards to the overall audio quality when no reinforcement is in use. Ambient noise is the sound in a room when there is no planned audio source. So far, so good? OK. Sound reinforcement happens for a variety of reasons. The auditorium where the show will take place may have bad acoustics, the audience may be too large to hear someone speaking on stage, or maybe an actor never learned to properly project his or her voice. Today’s performers are not always being trained to project their voices the way they once were. In the “old days” of actor training, actors were trained to support their voices through breathing in order to get the words and music all the way to the back of the house.
Gone are the days of most live sound cues performed backstage by stagehands. Gone also are the days when musicals were done without any sound reinforcement. Vocal reinforcement is an everyday occurrence now. Every actor knows about body mics. Orchestral reinforcement works on the basis that every part should be heard, and that everything should blend together and be cohesive. The sound operator and the orchestra working together can achieve this goal. Please, please, please, always remember louder does not mean better!
Under the Tungsten Moon
Creating the Eccentric, Intimate Style of Neil Young’s Latest Tour
David Barbour
Photography by Todd Kaplan
Among the elder statesman of rock, Neil Young is the great paradox—an icon of integrity who exists in perpetual transition. From his early days as a folk singer in Toronto’s coffeehouses, Young’s career has followed a singularly winding path, through such groups as Buffalo Springfield; Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young; and Crazy Horse. Over four decades, he has amassed a catalog of songs numbering in the hundreds and embracing a diversity of styles. According to his citation at the Rock-and-Roll Hall of Fame, Young has “been a cult hero, a chart-topping rock star, and all things in-between, remaining true to his restless muse all the while. At various times, [he] has delved into folk, country, garage rock, and grunge. His biggest album, Harvest (1972), apotheosized the laid-back singer/songwriter genre he helped invent. By contrast, Rust Never Sleeps (1979), Young’s second-best seller, was a loud, brawling masterpiece whose title track, an homage to Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols, contained the oft-quoted line ‘Better to burn out than it is to rust.’ ”
For Young, rusting is simply not an option. In a life marked both by enormous achievement and terrible tragedy, he has emerged as rock’s great survivor, always creatively engaged and politically active. (He’s known particularly for his defense of the environment and his outspoken opposition to the invasion of Iraq; he was also among the first to respond to the events of 9/11, with the song “Let’s Roll.”) Indeed, in a here-today-gone-tomorrow pop landscape littered with pretty and pre-processed personalities, Young’s flinty insistence on doing things his own way looks positively Lincoln-esque.
His latest effort is Chrome Dreams II, a distinctively Young-ian title, as it is a sequel to an album recorded in 1977 and never released. (When asked by a New York Times reporter how the original Chrome Dreams ended up on the shelf, the singer’s response is typically oblique: “It just passed me by. I did it, I got to a certain place, and then something would happen and distract me, and I would get into something else and forget what I was doing before. That’s happened a lot.”)
To support Chrome Dreams II—which includes the 18-minute guitar epic, “Ordinary People”—Young hit the road last fall, playing theatres with an intimate, three-part show that showcases songs both old and new. It’s a kind of musical triptych: The opening sequence features his wife, Pegi, backed by three musicians; next comes Young performing a solo acoustic set; finishing the evening, he offers an electric set, backed by three colleagues, featuring plenty of his distinctive guitar jams. The songs are vintage Young—enigmatic, melancholy, and sardonic, a wised-up romantic’s elegy to ideals lost and a clear-eyed appraisal of our fallen 21st-century state.
Through it all, Young remains indubitably himself. Even as fans cry out, demanding to hear their favorite songs, he deflects their attention with goofy, hilarious musings (“This will probably be disappointing to a lot of you,” he says by way of introduction to one number), and a ferocious concentration on his musical mission.
The tour features a production design that’s perfectly suited to its conceptual, art-rock essence. The musician and his colleagues are placed at stage center, surrounded by an array of elderly looking sound gear and vintage studio lights—not to mention an enormous fan. Located at downstage left is an easel, on which paintings are placed to announce each new song. (Throughout the show, a man in a red suit and white Panama hat—he is, in fact, the tour manager and resident artist, Eric Johnson—paints new works.) On the upstage wall, one sees a jumble of letters, not unlike those found on the refrigerators of young couples with children, only larger. The lighting is defined by warm washes, saturated colors, bold angles, and haunting backlight looks. It’s as if you’ve been invited to wander around in the attic of Young’s mind—you wouldn’t be surprised if a ghost or two wandered into view.
______________
(Source: Originally published in Lighting & Sound America, February 2008.)
Let’s talk for a moment about the difference between amplification and reinforcement. This is a critical part of sound for the theatre and we better know the difference. Amplification means simply making it louder. That equals putting a huge stack of speakers on either side of the stage and cranking the volume. Reinforcement is much more subtle. Reinforcement is all about pushing and pulling the sound to create the environment. Amplification is obvious, reinforcement should not be. Amplification is easy to notice, reinforcement—when well done— should not be!
Another factor contributing to the differences in theatre sound for today’s productions is ambient noise. There is a great deal more street noise. Most theatres are also airconditioned. New technology in other design areas brings noise from motors and fans. All of this conspires against both the actors and the audience. These factors must be addressed in order for the reinforcement of the sound to properly do its job. Of course the director can help through staging, and the conductor can help by controlling the musicians … but the sound department ultimately is responsible for the final way the show sounds.
SOUND SYSTEMS
Let’s talk about a basic sound system. This will introduce you to each of three main areas of the sound system: input, output, and processing. The inputs in our sample system are microphones. The microphones are connected to inputs on the mixing console. The console provides preamplification, which amplify the microphone level signals to line level. The signal then goes through equalization, which provides the means to control each microphone. Level control is the last step in the processing. The console takes the processed signal and routes it to the output. The output of the console is sent to the amplifier. The amplifier boosts the output to a level that will drive the loudspeaker. The loudspeaker converts the signal into sound waves that people can hear.
Sound equipment has many variations and alternatives. Let me give you some ideas for each of our three categories. Inputs can be microphones, contact pickups, magnetic pickups, laser pickups, and optical pickups. Signal processors can be mixing console, equalizers, reverberation, delay, and amplifiers. Outputs can be loudspeakers (woofers, midrange, and tweeters) and headphones. There are variations on all of these options. The last part of choosing equipment is to consider the right speakers, the right microphones, the right mixing system, and lastly the positioning of all of the above.
MICROPHONES
Let’s start talking about specific equipment. We’ll start with input devices. As I’ve already mentioned these can include microphones and different kinds of pickups. A microphone is a device for converting acoustic sound into electrical energy. There are two main types of microphones, dynamic and condenser. Dynamic microphones are good all-around microphones that are both durable and affordable. Condenser microphones are more versatile, more costly, and less durable. Condenser microphones are the choice for the theatre given their range in quality for many different purposes.
FIG. 14.1
Basic sound design layout.
There are differences between the various styles of microphones. The handheld microphone was once the most prominent design. It is still used today, although only for effect during obvious “performance” sequences within a play. Almost exclusively, the lavalier microphone has replaced the handheld. Lavaliers are very small and designed to be clipped to clothing or hung around the neck. As the need for sound design in the theatre has grown, lavaliers can now be attached in the hair or wigs, behind the ear, and even sewn into costumes—all to try and hide them. The big concern with lavaliers is moisture, as perspiration can cause major issues with these tiny microphones.
Contact pickups are “like” microphones. They are attached to musical instruments and pick up sound through vibrations instead of from the air. Pressure-response microphones are usually mounted to a flat surface with the attached plate that increases gain.
The impedance of a microphone is the amount of resistance a microphone has to an audio signal. The lower the resistance, the fewer problems the microphone may have using longer cables and dealing with noise interference. Generally low impedance means a better quality microphone, and therefore becomes a perfect choice for the theatre.
Gain in a sound system is what we usually think of as volume. However, it is a little different than volume. Gain is the amount of amplification that is available within the sound system. If set up properly, meaning the system, microphones, and speakers, gain can be maximized, which means you will have the most latitude with your microphone. If you think about it, the number of inputs trying to simultaneously use the output will divide the potential gain. So it is important to only have open and ready to use the microphones that need to be.
So, now that you have all this information, how do you choose a specific microphone?
Handheld microphones have much more latitude in gain than a lavalier. However, most shows want to use the much smaller microphone for aesthetic reasons. The standard is rapidly becoming the lavalier with a wireless transmitter. Sennheiser introduced the MKE-2 lavalier in the early 1980s as a major innovation. It was the smallest, highest-quality lavalier to date.
FIG. 14.2
Different microphone types.
FIG. 14.3
Sennheiser wireless microphones.
Most microphones used in theatre are wireless. That means they need a transmitter and a receiver. Wireless microphones operate on radio frequencies. Most transmitters and receivers can be used on a range of frequencies so that local issues, like television, radio, and taxicabs, can be worked around. If you use a frequency that is already in use, or very close to another that is in use, it can cause everything from a hiss to just plain not working.
Lavalier microphones were developed for television news. Originally they were hung around the newscaster’s neck on some kind of a loop, or clipped on their clothing. Lapel and chest mounts can be used as long as they are taped securely in place. If the microphone needs to be placed between the skin and the costume, the only tape option is to use medical tape. If the lavalier is to be worn behind the ear, an ear loop holds the microphone in place while a thin boom brings the microphone around and in front of the mouth. This is obvious to the audience, but if the director doesn’t mind, it is a good and easy placement.
FIG. 14.4
Lavalier mounting options.
The forehead is the best and most popular method in the theatre today. This allows the microphone to land in the middle of the forehead. It uses the natural resonance of the skull. There are a number of ways to secure this in place depending on the use of hairpieces or hats. The worst thing for the lavalier is if an actor is wearing a hat; the second worst thing is the noise from moving lights. In order to microphone a group of people, like a chorus, a technique known as area micing is used. An array of floor microphones is used and then the sound operator rises and lowers the gain as needed. Since so much of theatre can take place on the centerline, it is good to use an odd number of floor microphones. This will let you have the most options for which microphones to use at what time.
Interesting Quote:
What I’ve discovered through the preview period is that if the show is good enough on its own, it doesn’t have to be loud all the time—kids will shut up if they’re interested enough.
—Kai Harada
MIXING CONSULES
Next let’s talk about the mixing console, which is where the design is completed. Levels are adjusted both for inputs and outputs. These can vary on a daily basis as humidity can affect the tonal quality. All consoles work on the same principle. They take inputs, process the signal, and transfer the audio to the outputs. It sounds simple, but there are still many variations that can happen. Consoles will only allow for a certain number of inputs and outputs. The individual console also limits the types of adjustments you can make to the audio signal. These combinations of variations are what will determine the right console for a show.
Analog consoles are generally used today for smaller-budget shows. As they are the “older” style now, they are generally simpler to operate. These boards are large due to their technology. They are also simpler inside because they don’t need all the digital processing and conversions. To operate the analog console, you will move the faders up and down, as well as rotating the dials. The drawback is that there is generally no onboard equalizer, delay, or any other effects. This means if you want them, they will cost additional, and you have to find a place to put them.
Digital consoles are the newest technology, and they are continuing to develop. Overall, digital consoles have more flexibility, are smaller physically, options are limitless, bandwidth is more than double, and all the effects are on board. Other benefits are that the amount of outboard gear is cut down, and there is never a need to repatch. With more control comes a price, in a way. How many faders can you move simultaneously? Well, relative mixing is a term that means individual faders are proportionally controlled by a master fader.
FIG. 14.5
Analog console.
FIG. 14.6
Yamaha 02R96V2 and Yamaha 01V96V2 digital consoles.
The next step is computerized mixing on a digital console. Similar to a lighting controller, this type of digital console can record scenes or cues with all the nuances of input, output, and effects. You can then recall it with the touch of a button! The more the computer can control, the smaller the overall size of the digital console needs to be.
The software has already gone to the next level. It can also control the manual faders via motors. When a scene is recalled, the software will actually move the physical faders to reestablish their positions when the scene was recorded.
SIGNAL PROCESSING
Signal processing is our next topic. Equalizers and effects processors are examples of this. They all change the input signal before it heads to the output signal. Effects processors are something we haven’t really talked about yet. They are capable of time delay, echoes, reverberation, and much, much more. We generally tend to use processing such as equalization and time delay to get all the speakers to work together and create a unified sound, no matter what seat your are sitting in.
Equalizers are the most common use for a basic signal processor. Think of them as a filter. Equalizers help to tune specific sources to a similar base level. If an equalization attempt does too much correction, it can tend to distort the resulting audio. You should try to keep it to the minimum needed to do what you want, without overdoing it.
As the system gain is increased, distortion will show up first on any sources where you have over-equalized. All this means is that you need to use the tools the way they were intended.
Reverberation is basically reflected sound that has blended with the original sound. This happens normally. Sometimes you will want to try and reduce it. Sometimes you will want to enhance it even more. Delay effects are just what they sound like. They input the audio and hold onto it for a certain amount of time before giving it to the output. This is pretty cool—here is why! If you are in a large auditorium and the speakers are fairly far apart, a delay can make sure the sound comes out of both speakers at the same time.
Interesting Quote:
People’s eyes and ears must go to the same place. Time is the most important thing in a sound system.
—Tim Mazur
There are literally hundreds of types to choose from in the mixer console world. If you are renting, you will need to find out what is available. Things that may influence you are all the different traits we’ve just discussed. These also include your budget, the space allowed in the auditorium, and the experience of your sound technician.
SPEAKERS
Let’s do a little introduction to speakers. There are four types: tweeter, midrange, woofer, and subwoofer. A tweeter is a type of speaker designed specifically to reproduce high frequencies. A midrange is designed specifically for, yes, you guessed it, the midrange frequencies. A woofer is designed to reproduce low frequencies. A subwoofer is designed specifically to reproduce very low-frequency sounds. These types are used in many combinations based on your location and the production.
A line array is multiple speakers hung together, either vertically or horizontally, so that they can act as one huge speaker. Each speaker in an array will have a very narrow spread of sound per speaker. A cluster is similar to an array, however, it is almost always hung on center right above the edge of the stage. A wedge is a kind of speaker cabinet. It refers to one that is shaped like an actual wedge and placed on the floor. The actors use the wedge to hear themselves isolated from the balanced mix coming out of every other speaker. Lastly, the sweet spot is the best location in the house. Optimally it is the place where everyone in the audience is equidistant from each speaker, but that is hard to do in many of today’s theatres.
Interesting Quote:
I did do a show once in which the director ran up to me in a frenzy, and said, “The lighting is dark, the actors can’t act, the singers can’t sing, the set looks miserable; you are our only hope! We need more thunder cues!” I complied, although that, to me, is putting a band-aid on a gaping wound.
—Kai Harada
CONNECTORS AND CABLES
How do we connect all this stuff? Well, there are connectors and there are cables. Let’s take a look at each of the various types. The granddaddy of all audio connectors is the banana plug. Although it can come in various sizes, the 4 mm is the most common. These plugs are single wire. They are often color coded red and black.
The XLR is a connector that can have three pins or more. This connector is one of the most commonly used connectors in the sound world. Originally called the “X series” when it first came out, the L represents the added latch, and the R is for the rubber surrounding the internal contacts. The BNC connector is a coaxial connector. It has a miniature bayonet-locking connector. A threaded version of this connector is the TNC connector. The threads replace the bayonet. Both of these connectors are locking, which makes them infinitely useful—in addition to the XLR—in theatre where cables may be tripped on or pulled inadvertently.
FIG. 14.7
Tweeter, midrange, woofer, and subwoofer speakers.
So much for connectors, let’s talk about cable. Coaxial cable, as shown in the figure on page 374, is made up of (D) a single copper core, surrounded by a layer of insulation (B), covered by (C) a copper shield, and then (A) a flexible plastic jacket. Multi-pair cable has a single outer jacket and insulation with many internal balanced, or twisted-pair, lines. Twisted-pair cable has two center conductors twisted together. Many twisted pairs can share one insulation and jacket. All balanced audio cables are twisted-pair cables with a shield, which further protects the signal being transmitted from introduced noise. A shield is a different kind of insulation that is conductive to protect against electromagnetic and electrostatic fields. This helps keep the buzz and hum away from your system. Lastly, a snake. That is right, an audio snake. Picture several complete audio cables held together in a common jacket. These are awesome for loading in a temporary show.
HEADSETS
Let’s talk headsets next. In order for a show to run smoothly, everyone behind the scenes must be able to communicate easily. This usually requires a combination of wired and wireless headset stations on multiple channels. All wired and wireless communication needs to flow through a base station. The wireless belt pack and wired intercom connection on the rear panel of the base station should have its own full-duplex port. Some manufacturers, like Clear-Com, offer the voice communication from each to be sampled, mixed, and then rerouted throughout the system as desired.
FIG. 14.8
Speaker array at the 1869 Bardavon Opera House.
FIG. 14.9
Speaker array on left, and wedges in the center for an outdoor concert.
FIG. 14.10
Various connectors.
The base station will need to support as many wireless belt packs and intercom connections as your show will need. LED indicators and a front-panel fluorescent display are nice to show status and battery information. It is important that each belt pack have its own way to be individually addressed by the base—allowing multiple combinations of belt pack-to-belt pack and small-group conversations to happen simultaneously.
There are many extra benefits that some models offer, such as programmable software menus on the base, accessible via the display, and a push-to-enter rotary encoder. All aspects of the belt packs, rear-panel connectors, and creation of communications routes and groups can be addressed. Each belt pack and rear-panel connector can be labeled with a five-character name, which appears on the base station and belt pack displays, uniquely identifying the system users. Relative levels among belt packs and input and output levels for the wired connections are also under software control.
ASSISTED-HEARING DEVICES
Our last topic in this chapter will be assisted hearing devices. The first infrared listening system was introduced by Sound Associates on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre to aid hearing-impaired patrons in 1979. An infrared listening system provides amplification for hearing-impaired patrons through wireless receivers. The sound is transmitted to the receivers using infrared light, which is invisible to the naked eye. ShowTrans by Sound Associates was the next stage in this product’s development in 1998, and it added multilingual, scene-by-scene commentary via infrared transmission. This is not a word-for-word translation of the show. Instead the system gives the audience member detailed plot information. The lighting control board triggers these translations. Each time a lighting cue is executed, the translation software knows to begin the next set of lines.
FIG. 14.11
Cable diagram—different cable types.
FIG. 14.12
Audio snake.
FIG. 14.13
Clear-Com wireless communication system.
FIG. 14.14
Another model, and style of Clear-Com wireless communication system.
D-Scriptive by Sound Associates was the next advance. It added a fully automated audio description for the visually impaired audience members, which includes a detailed account of all onstage action including choreography, blocking, lighting, sets, and costume changes. The newest advance is the I-Caption system, also by Sound Associates, which is a state-of-the-art wireless visual aid that provides verbatim real-time closed captions for theatrical performances. By displaying dialogue, lyrics, and sound effects on a handheld device, hearing-impaired patrons can better understand a production or event. The I-Caption System can also be expanded to incorporate subtitles, showing the text in multiple languages and playing audio segments.
FIG. 14.15
Infrared assistive devices by Sound Associates.
CHAPTER
FOURTEEN
STUDY WORDS
Acoustics
Ambient noise
Amplifier
Area micing
Banana plug
BNC
Cluster
Coaxial cable
Condenser microphone
Contact pickup
Dynamic microphone
Equalization
Gain
Impedance
Input
Lavalier
Line array
Midrange
Mixing console
Multi-pair cable
Output
Pressure-response
microphone
Shield
Signal processer
Snake
Subwoofer
TNC
Tweeter
Twisted pair
Woofer
XLR