Chapter 10
TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING PERSPECTIVES
One way to introduce transformative learning in the digital age is to consider the interdependent relationships among rapid technology innovations. Many of these overlapping relationships are illustrated in Figure 10.1 and include these categories:
Figure 10.1 Transformative Learning and the Digital Age
- Our world and society
- Our work and social demands
- Social expectations and taboos
- Expectations of ubiquitous access for work communication
Not only do people more frequently interact with others worldwide but also the exchanges are so transparent and convenient it seems as though our colleagues are in the office or at home next door. It does not matter if the reasons for participation in individual or group communication are informational, recreational, personal, professional, or a combination thereof; the reach may extend worldwide. To use a phrase I introduced in another book (King, 2002), when people do become cognizant of the global expanse of their communication and collaboration, people in the digital age may feel as though they have virtual windburn from instantaneously traveling between distant locations.
A subtle, almost invisible, but very critical layer of complexity enters with this far-reaching communication. International communication is so easily completed with technology that users may forget the culture of their audience. E-mails, telephone via voice over Internet protocol (VOIP), file sharing and collaboration (e.g., Dropbox, Google Docs, etc.) might include people in China, North Africa, Brazil, and so on. However, are we thinking about our audience and our choices of language, idioms, vocabulary, and so on when communicating with everyone during the course of our day? As if these issues were not complex enough, more opportunities and challenges continue to emerge.
There has been widely varied discussions about the impact of digital technology on our social, mental, and psychological development. Some experts, such as Turkle, who study cyberculture and its social and psychological impact, maintain that ubiquitous technology, which increasingly dominates our communication patterns, can negatively change the nature of our relationships and the structure of our minds (Turkle, 1995, 2005, 2006, 2012). Other experts indicate that technology use holds possibilities for new relationships, intercultural competence, critical thinking, other 21st-century skills, and more (Aldrich, 2009b; Cheung, 2007; Cooper, He, & Levin, 2011; King, 2012b). Most likely, the benefits and challenges are dependent on contexts and individuals, so it is not surprising that there are mixed perspectives. However, there is a unifying point in this controversy: Adults need to understand and determine how to cope with the processes of constant innovation and changing perspectives.
From this inclusive viewpoint, understanding transformative learning theory offers, first, a valuable framework for adults to understand how they can navigate such challenges and, second, valuable coping skills that can support the process. In this chapter, multiple examples illustrate the need, strategies, and journey experienced as adults apply transformative learning in formal and informal learning situations.
As illustrated in Victoria's scenario, there are times when people experience more confusion with change than others, and technology can often precipitate change that at times can become unsettling and disturbing. In these situations, the radical innovation and its integration into education (technology adoption and institutionalization) created a disorienting dilemma that initiates an opportunity to experience transformative learning or reject it.
Transformative Learning Theory Specifics
In 1978, Mezirow introduced the term and theory of transformative learning (TL). Over the ensuing decades, much research has explored this cognitive and affective series of stages across a multitude of contexts, including professional development (Cranton, 1994, 2006; King, 2003); adult basic education (King & Wright, 2003); adults living with HIV(Baumgartner, 2002; Courtenay, Merriam, Reeves, & Baumgartner, 2000); international students (King, Leos, & Norstrand, 2015; King, Norstrand, & Leos, 2015); teacher education (Kitchenham, 2005, 2006); imagination (Dirkx, 1998, 2001a, 2001b; Mezirow, 1997); drama and performing arts (Davis-Manigaulte, Yorks, & Kasl, 2006; Fisher-Yoshida, Geller, & Schapiro, 2009); human resources and organizational culture (Brooks, 2004; Marsick & Watkins, 2003); and more.
There was much debate in the literature about the details of the transformative learning theory in part because of the original research method (Kitchenham, 2008). The original study (Mezirow, 1978) examined the experiences of five women who had returned to college later in life. Mezirow's wife was one of the participants in the original study. Watching and listening to his wife and her classmates, he recognized a different learning experience than he was used to seeing among adult learners.
In 1991, Mezirow revised the model to include an 11th stage. All the stages are listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Stages of Transformative Learning
| Stage | Description |
| 1 | A disorienting dilemma |
| 2 | A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame |
| 3 | A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions |
| 4 | Recognition that one's discontent and the process of transformation are shared and that others have negotiated a similar change |
| 5 | Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions |
| 6 | Planning of a course of action |
| 7 | Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one's plans |
| 8 | Provisional trying of new roles |
| 9 | Renegotiating relationships and negotiating new relationships |
| 10 | Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships |
| 11 | A reintegration into one's life on the basis of conditions dictated by one's perspective |
Source: Adapted from Mezirow (1991).
Transformative learning is a dynamic journey in which progress is neither linear nor predictable. Mezirow presented two types of TL journeys: epochal and incremental. Epochal TL experiences are traditionally described as the “a-ha!” moment, whereas incremental TL develops more gradually over a period of time. It may take 6 months to completely experience TL, or it may take 6 years for some situations. However, every experience of TL is unique to each individual and circumstance.
Mezirow's (1978) work states that he was influenced by several theories, but one that is very significant and yet different bears discussion. Freire's (1972, 1973) work and theory was focused on similar experiences of transformation. However, there were major distinctions between the approaches. Mezirow's theory focused more on cognitive psychology within the individual and Freire's explored radical pedagogy. Freire studied in-depth the blending of education, sociology, and political science in real-life contexts.
Freire (1972, 1973) articulated the ability of people, regardless of class or education, to reach their full potential as human beings. Freire's work revealed a means to and the power of unfolding people's abilities to examine their beliefs, values, and organizational policies and overcome oppression (conscientization). His fundamental premise was a theory of education and social change: the changes, that is, transformations, that occurred within the individual eventually spilled over into societal expression (1972). Ultimately, Freire's theories, philosophy, and practices were foundation for political revolutions worldwide (Johnstone & Terzakis, 2012).
Digital Age Needs for Transformative Learning
A unique value of transformative learning, which has been increasingly recognized, is that it provides a framework for understanding how adults wrestle with and navigate the complex, competing demands of life in the 21st century (Harmon, 2011; King, 2002, 2003; Kleinheksel, 2014; Ongito, 2013). Study after study has revealed how TL provides valuable explanations of learning in exciting, heartbreaking, frightening, challenging, and thrilling experiences. This summary statement confirms a much-needed agreement that TL is not always positive (Bellis & Morrice, 2003; Han, 2012; King, 2002; Roberts, 2006).
For instance, when adult learners encounter different cultures via their global communications tools, whether it is rural versus urban or Eastern versus Western perspectives, their lives and worldviews are forever changed. The experience of becoming aware of cultures and people who live different lives, have vastly different histories, and struggle with basic survival issues all break the idealism of sheltered existence. Interacting with people different from ourselves on a continuing basis introduces and challenges ways of comprehending culture, expectations, values, assumptions, traditions, transactions, relationships, dialogue, and more (Deardorff, 2004; Freire, 1972; Han, 1997, 2010, 2012; King, 2009; O'Sullivan, 1999; Taylor, 1994).
Therefore, TL theory provides a valuable framework for adults to comprehend, make meaning, and navigate these challenges as well as develop coping skills that can support the process (Cranton, 1994, 2006; King, 2003, 2009; Kitchenham, 2006). The next sections of this chapter provide multiple examples to illustrate the need, strategies, and journey experienced as adults apply TL in formal and informal learning situations.
TL Research and Theory for the Digital Age
The research on TL has spanned many areas that are relevant to adult learners who are charting their course daily through the digital age. For this section, several areas are identified and discussed as representative of the expansive and varied experiences that adult learners may encounter across different situations.
Social Media
For readers who engage in social media and online communities, it might not be surprising that these virtual interactions comprise very real relationships. Furthermore, such digital interactions can have a profound impact resulting in changing values, beliefs, and worldviews (King, 2011, 2012b). For instance, even today, significant experiences can be initiated when young adults from isolated US communities begin to read diverse perspectives and experiences through digital technology (for example, LGBTQ online communities). There are many accounts that have documented when these encounters may be the first time that individuals have opportunities to communicate with people who hold nonmainstream, heteronormative ideas regarding sexuality, sexual orientations, or sexual identities (Gay, Lesbian, & Straight Education Network [GLSEN] & Center for Innovative Public Health Research [CiPHR], 2013)
In many cases, prior to such virtual interactions, teens and adults struggle with their sexual orientation in a heteronormative community. In such contexts the message is clear: to have a sexual orientation other than heterosexual is unusual at best, and depending on the culture, faith, ethnicity, and so on, it may even be perceived as morally wrong or mentally ill. However, scores of virtual communities that allow discussion and exploration of sexual orientation and identity are within reach with Internet access and a web browser. One's world can change forever as new possibilities become real.
Online and Distance Learning
Research regarding transformative learning through online learning has included not only adult learners as the focus but also faculty members. The faculty development literature recognized at least as far back as 2003 (King) that instructors being pressed to adopt new technologies may face hesitations, even fear. Nonetheless, in some circumstances, disorienting dilemmas could be transformed into life-changing transformative learning experiences (Allen, Seaman, Babson Survey Research, & Inside Higher Ed, 2012; King, 2002, 2003; Schols, 2012; Stansberry & Kymes, 2007). In a similar manner, adult learners, who like Victoria in the chapter's opening scenario, must adjust to new ways of learning and studying while completing and submitting assignments online. Such a host of simultaneous demands could catapult a learner into a tailspin of confusion.
Uniform patterns across most higher education institutions of lower retention rates for online courses compared to traditional course delivery are evidence of the associated frustration among students with too many different formats of online courses within one college (Allen & Seaman, 2013, 2014). In addition, many research studies document the confusion, time management issues, and needs for faculty member interaction and intervention, dialogue, and feedback. Among the most valuable contributions to the literature have been those research-based publications that have offered strategies to cope with the confusion, fear, and disorganization as faculty members and learners translate their transformative learning experiences into success (King, 2002, 2003; Kleinheksel, 2014; Schols, 2012).
Specifically, the TL and online learning research has provided direction for developing meaningful, interactive, and life-changing online learning strategies and experiences. Examples of these recommendations include strategies such as discussed in this chapter's next major section, “Transformative Learning Experience Strategies,” using reflective journaling as sources of critical topics, discussing learner-identified course issues and trends from the media sources, and conducting original research (e.g., interviews, review and analyze primary documents, etc.) as the basis for creative performances and simulations. It is no accident that all of these strategies have dialogue and reflection as common elements. Mezirow (1978, 1981, 1991); Cranton (1994, 2006); King (2002, 2003, 2009); Taylor (1994, 2008); Taylor and Cranton (2012); and others continue to confirm that meaningful dialogue or critical conversations in which learners explore their understanding in order to make meaning of their experiences and learning is an essential process in the complete transformative learning journey.
Schön's (1983) work regarding the role of reflective practice and critical reflection (King & Kitchener, 1994) in professional learning has also been a major building block in enhancing greater understanding in this field of development. However, the concepts of meaning-making are inclusive of our scholarly knowledge and research regarding ways of knowing (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986) as well as epistemologies and self-authorship (Baxter Magolda, 1999a, 1999b, 2014). (All models are discussed in Chapter 3.)
Cross-Cultural Experiences
In 1994, Taylor cited increased international communications as the need for his research regarding the vibrant connections between cross-cultural experiences and TL. This study focused on the experiences of 12 individuals who had behaviors and attitudes consistent with intercultural competency. The study not only described and discussed the learning process involved in developing intercultural competency but also explored the potential of TL to explain the experiences of those involved.
In 2000, King's ESL learner research delineated TL experiences among ESL learners studying in higher education (an area now referred to as academic English or academic ESL). The central problem and impetus for the study was that ESL adult learners experience many demands and influences that surface in the classroom. In addition, researchers expected that educators would be better informed and prepared by understanding those connections to classroom instruction.
Fast forward 20 years, and our increasingly global society has been the context for many studies that have explored cross-cultural experiences of TL. The following examples explored different aspects of intercultural competence and TL: Hartford (2010) and Clapp-Smith and Wernsing (2014) explored the role of community among study abroad students; Han (2012) examined the experience of foreign-born faculty members in the United States; Prince (2010) studied women leadership in the Middle East; and Lilley, Barker, and Harris (2014) investigated global citizen learning.
Overall, the information age and digital age have provided significant focus on cross-cultural experiences of TL. This focus might have occurred because of two factors. First, because of technology, compared to prior generations, digital age children and adults have more frequent cross-cultural experiences (Spring, 2007). Second, these experiences occur in many facets of their lives; adults interact cross-culturally explicitly and transparently in the development of cultural and intercultural identities (Kim, 2008). As a result of these interactions, adults in the digital age more frequently face cultural-related disorienting dilemmas or conflict to potentially commence on a new TL journey. Therefore, TL emerged as a vital and valuable learning theory to understand adults' personal, professional, and cross-cultural experiences in many contexts.
TL can be greatly facilitated by the abundance of information, and, more important, the opportunities to discuss opinions that social media supports, encourages, and promotes consideration of different views. This personal TL process includes struggles with the disorienting dilemmas and beyond. The scope of such questioning may include alternating between prior beliefs and new considerations, wrestling with new understandings and trying on different ways of interacting with the world and grieving or celebrating new insights.
Transformative Learning Experience Strategies
This section of Chapter 10 not only introduces a specific instructional model for facilitating transformative learning in formal learning contexts but also several effective learning strategies. The four learning strategies described are (1) using journaling to facilitate dialogue, (2) having students identify content-related current issues and trends for guiding class discussions, (3) portraying mock interviews with historical figures, and (4) participating in and reflecting on participation in unfamiliar online communities.
Strategy 10.1: The Transformative Learning Opportunities Model (TLOM)
Based on extensive research with faculty members in higher education, King developed the TLOM (Figure 10.2) in 2002 to describe an instructional model of TL among adult learners. This model portrays the dynamics, interactions, and timing among instructors' and adult learners' roles, actions, and responsibilities in TL.
Figure 10.2 The Transformative Learning Opportunities Model (TLOM)
Source: King (2002, 2003).
In the TLOM's learner-centered model (King, 2002, 2003), the instructor serves a facilitative and guiding role. For instance, instructors and learners interact and share decision making during the instructional planning and assessment processes. In addition, the TLOM framework affords learners many opportunities to develop strategies to navigate TL as the responsibility and accountability progressively shifts to them. The TLOM provides an alternate instructional framework that supports planning and implementing the following strategies.
Strategy 10.2: Journaling and Critical Conversations
Among its many benefits, journaling is a powerful vehicle for learners to connect everyday experience with formal and informal learning (Hiemstra, 2001; Jarvis, 2001). By recording thoughts, questions, and views in a private journal, learners have a space to explore their feelings, needs, understanding, and more. This activity combines journaling with critical conversations wherein learners individually and collectively reflect on previously unexamined beliefs, values, and assumptions. Such critical conversations have many benefits embedded in them including (1) explaining one's views and beliefs in different ways to communicate effectively; (2) understanding, appreciating, and testing different points of view; and (3) negotiating differences. Research continues to find dialogue to be a core element of transformative learning experiences (Brookfield, 2011; Cranton, 2006; King, 2009).
In the digital age, there are many options and formats available for reflective journaling. From private online text-based journals to public blogging, photo portfolios, video productions, and hard-copy notebooks, journals can be conceptualized in many different formats allowing greater possibilities to capture the understanding and imagination of learners. Another way to analyze journal options is to recognize that they may be public or privately available, locally or globally distributed, solo or collectively authored, text or graphic, descriptive or reality-based or imaginative, and so on. Such variations affect the choices made by the journal author.
Technology-mediated journaling for TL may be used in traditional face-to-face classes and also with online and distance learning technologies. Several methods could support virtual critical conversations that emerge from sharing journals. Such virtual spaces can be hosted in traditional LMS platforms that afford not only large-group but also small-group discussion forums. These variable-sized groups may be simultaneous (synchronous) or nonsimultaneous.
In many instructors' experiences establishing ground rules (e.g., concerning confidentiality, respect, safety, etc.) for discussions is even more necessary when pseudo-anonymity exists. That is, although the students' real names are listed in the course rosters, the posting process used in social media and other public forums may often create a false sense of privacy or anonymity. In addition, online communication may be confounded by the lack of visual cues of body language and facial expressions.
In the case of TL, the specific use of journals that I advocate for extends beyond writing to using them as the basis for critical conversations among peers. At the point of giving the journal assignment, instructors could also explain that every few meetings the class will be divided into small discussion groups in order to share and discuss an entry from their journal. The focus on critical issues, difficult questions, complex learning, and transformative learning needs to be discussed in the first two sessions. The first small-group discussion should be no later than one-fifth of the way through the course in order for formative revisions to guide the learners. The class and instructor should pick the dates for the small groups.
During the small-group discussions, learners select items from their journal as their focus. The instructors may suggest the following format and work with the class to develop their own processes and suggestions.
- Journal authors describe or show (photos, videos, etc.) their entry and any related concerns, questions, experience, and so on.
- Authors pose specific discussion questions or issues for the group to consider that are related to their journal entry and course content.
- All small-group members participate by offering assistance, direction, new perspectives, questions, and feedback.
- Large-group debriefing sessions discuss the individual and collective experiences related to critical conversations and TL: benefits, limitations, and desired changes in the procedures.
Readers may also want to consult one or more of the listed valuable comprehensive guides regarding facilitating discussion among adult learners (Brookfield, 2013, 2015; Brookfield & Preskill, 2005).
Strategy 10.3: Current Issues and Trends and Critical Conversations
Another rendition of the journal and critical conversations strategy is to use current issues and trends as the basis for student-led whole-group discussions. In this strategy, students identify content-related current issues and trends from mainstream news outlets and professional publications. The focus of the articles should be on controversial issues and hot topics that introduce conflicting choices, ethical issues, and other dilemmas related to the topic of study.
In graduate courses that focus on organization and administration in higher education, learners select many such articles from The Chronicle of Higher Education and Inside Higher Education. In political science, social policy, US history, or government classes, articles could be identified from Time magazine, US News and World Report, Wall Street Journal, and many others. Unresolved conflict and dilemmas offer compelling article choices for learners to explore, deconstruct, and debate. Such cases work well with adult learners because of their inherent and authentic urgency, human interest, and relevance (Brookfield, 2015; Brookfield & Preskill, 2005).
When planning and implementing this strategy, there are several tips that facilitate valuable transformative learning experiences. First, whole-group discussions regarding the purpose and process of the activity are important for learners to comprehend this alternate format. Second, by signing up early in the course for their facilitated discussion session(s), learners gain more responsibility and accountability for their learning and assignment (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005). Third, engaging learners in determining (1) ground rules for confidentiality and conduct during discussions and (2) specifics regarding conducting and assessing the sessions to help them develop greater ownership and understanding of planning and assessing learning. Fourth, faculty members and learners must agree that everyone needs to be active participants to keep discussions aligned with the topics and goals and follow the agreed-on community conduct rules.
Strategy 10.4: Portraying Historical Interviews
This recommended strategy takes a different turn as learners portray historical figures in mock video interviews. Students conduct extensive background research about the content area and must use their critical thinking and creative abilities. This method is beneficial because it enables learners to tap into different dimensions of their intellect, which can be very fruitful in reconciling conflicting information.
Although cognitive work tends to be highly analytical, creative work may create different connections among information, ideas, and questions to generate unique responses. Brookfield (2015) and James and Brookfield (2014) provide several additional valuable recommendations regarding creative instructional recommendations that cultivate critical thinking.
As an example, Dr. Coswell's biomedical engineering ethics class was designed as an interdisciplinary course integrating technical studies with ethical reasoning. Such course offerings emerged from discussions among engineering firms, graduates, and program leaders regarding the fact that new professionals needed to be better prepared to work immediately with complex ethical situations. This formal but practical preparation would be immensely beneficial and desirable as preparation for intern and permanent field placements.
In this assignment, learners were to identify a historical figure from engineering, industry, or public life who found current technology and ethical issues confusing. Research would include not only text-based but also audio, graphic, and video formats of the individual, which learners would gather, categorize, and analyze. Based on this research, the learners would glean essential information to guide them in portraying the notable figure most accurately.
This instructional strategy includes the interpretative portrayal of the historical figure in several dimensions: knowledge and understanding, opinions (e.g., political, discipline related, etc.), community roles, restrictions, perspectives, reasoning, attire, mannerisms, speech, stance, and so on. One of the critical dilemmas of the assignment is that in most cases, some of these data would be unavailable. These situations provide opportunities to conduct additional research into what is known and unknown, extrapolate information, make choices, and negotiate a consistency with the historical record. Authentic ethical choices regarding their intended profession and field of choice would be embedded in the assignment.
Based on the intent of the activity, assessment should focus on debriefing the experience and considering what was learned about the course content, the learner's understanding of the complexities of the topic, any new perspectives or insights gained through the process, and any potential conflicts along findings, beliefs, and assumptions. Exploring the last two areas enables learners to begin to articulate potential transformative learning experiences. Assessment of the final products could be a group effort, self-reflection, or left in the hands of the instructor depending on the course level and needs and interests of the learners. The premise of this strategy is that working with nontraditional styles and modes of understanding can gain new possibilities for transformative learning.
Strategy 10.5: Online Community Participation
Technology provides many potentially exciting, educational opportunities for adult learners to experience the world through someone else's eyes. In this chapter's final innovative strategy, the goal is to understand perspectives of people with different lived experiences than oneself.
One way in which the strategy can be pursued is to ask learners to identify an underrepresented group that they wish to understand better. Examples may include people with disabilities, cancer survivors, cancer patients under treatment, ESL learners, adults with different belief systems, or people from other countries, states, or communities.
First, learners should conduct some background research to understand the needs and context with which the individuals cope and interact. Next, they need to identify online communities that serve the specific interests and needs of this constituency. This community becomes the opportunity to learn about personal experiences and perspectives of life as a member of the specific underrepresented group. Sites that can be used as examples for discussions or demonstrations with learners include the following:
- American Diabetes Association (ADA) (http://community.diabetes.org/) Resources, forums, and so on for people with diabetes
- Asperger & Autism Forum Community (http://wrongplanet.net/) An online community serving individuals (and parents and professionals of those) with autism, Asperger's syndrome, ADHD, PDDs, and other neurological differences
- Association of Cancer Online Resources (ACOR) (http://www.acor.org/) Beginning as early as 1995, this early innovator provides the virtual motherlode of online forums related to every possible cancer. The home page has straightforward instructions to guide new users in navigating the extensive resources available.
What will learners find in the online communities? Many times, these communities will have extensive educational literature regarding the experience, condition, and related needs. Online discussion boards usually provide specific discussions on many topics of interest to the community. Reading and following just a few of these will provide a strong sense of the needs of the people as well. Medical- and disability-related online communities should be connected to professional associations, medical facilities, or nonprofits in order to ensure quality information (i.e., ADA and ACOR). Some online communities, (e.g., ACOR) include advocacy forums or departments that are very helpful in understanding the high-level needs of constituents for legal, medical, housing, representation, and aid.
Some instructors might advise their learners to maintain a journal while they participate in their related community. However they track their observations and insights, learners should prepare a report, poster, or presentation to share all of their experiences. Finally, instructors should use different models of reflection, validation, and questioning to facilitate a debriefing discussion that guides meaning-making, synthesizes the learners' experiences, and introduces the TL framework.
Conclusion
In 1994, Kegan's In Over Our Heads discussed how the complex, mental demands of life in the 21st century presented great challenges for adults. Similar to TL theory, his research recognized the many challenges that adults continue to confront daily. This chapter introduced TL theory, its development, and salient research. Research that makes TL vitally connected to life in the digital age has also been shared. Finally, the TLOM and several strategies for incorporating TL opportunities through technology in adult learning settings were shared and explained. The final activity provides space for readers to explore the meaning of TL for their specific learning or teaching needs.