9
Directing

Part 2

The Director’s Role during Production

Chapter 8 presented an overview of some of the principal aesthetic elements of the visualization process. We will now look at the director’s role during production. Some of the important elements to consider here include the role of the director during rehearsals and the procedures and terminology that directors use to direct both multi- and single-camera productions. At this point in the production process a director needs to take control of the production activities even though she or he will delegate some technical and artistic responsibilities to other members of the production team.

Rehearsals

Rehearsals give the director the opportunity to run through the production before it is broadcast or recorded. Rehearsals allow the director to fine-tune the production and give the director the opportunity to exert creative leadership as the director ultimately brings his or her artistic vision of the show to life. There is no rule describing how many rehearsals a director should conduct. It all depends on the type of program and the complexity of shots, graphics, special effects, and the talent’s performance. In a soap opera or dramatic show, there is an emphasis on performance during the rehearsal. Much attention is also paid to the position of talent and cameras and the coverage of the performer’s movement. In a newscast, rehearsal time is nonexistent. Talent and crew present the news program on a daily basis, so the production follows an established routine. For some sports shows or special events the director will want to rehearse the show’s opening and any segments that involve special effects or complex transitions. These rehearsals will also include the technical director, video recorder operator, graphics operators, and sometimes other crew members as well as the program’s talent in order to work out the specifics of timing and the location of each of these effects or transitions.

There are several different types of rehearsals, each of them best suited to a particular show format. We will briefly describe some of the most common types, with the understanding that some directors or production houses use different terms to describe similar activities.

■ Table or Script Reading

A table reading or script reading is routinely conducted during preproduction of episodic dramas, situation comedies, and soap operas. The performers, producers, writers, and director sit around a table or walk around a simulated stage and read through the script. During the script reading, the director advances his or her interpretation of how the lines and performance should be delivered. Performers also have a chance to have input into the process as they work to understand the nature of the characters they will interpret. Changes in the script may be initiated by the performers, producer, or director at this time.

■ Walk-Through

The walk-through is the rehearsal stage in which the physical movement of the talent and cameras is set. The director concentrates on making sure that camera angles cover the action and that every element of the show is in place. Special attention must be given to ensure that cameras, microphones, and lighting instruments are not visible in any of the shots. Tape marks should be placed on the floor to indicate the various positions to which the performers will move during the scene. For the camera to photograph the scene as planned, performers must accurately hit their marks. There can be walk-throughs for talent and the technical crew, and they can be performed separately or simultaneously.

■ Blocking

Blocking refers to the positioning of the cameras in relation to the performers. Initial blocking is done during the breakdown of the script. After the walk-through the director will make any necessary changes in the performers’ movements and camera positions to ensure that the cameras have the shots that best capture the director’s visualization of the scene.

■ Run-Through

The run-through is usually the last step before the program is recorded. In a run-through the whole show plays from beginning to end with the director taking notes on any problems and marking the script for corrections. Depending on the amount of rehearsal time available, the run-through may be conducted several times. The run-through can also be used to simultaneously conduct camera, control room, and dress rehearsals.

■ Notes

The notes session is the final step before the actual recording or live broadcast of the program. The director gathers together the performers and crew to discuss the rehearsal. This gives everyone a chance to make suggestions for any final changes for the program. Notes sessions are routinely conducted after the final rehearsal for soap operas, situation comedies, and dramatic programs.

■ Situation Comedy Rehearsal and Recording Schedule

Every director develops a rehearsal schedule that suits the needs of the particular program that is being produced. The example in Table 9.1 is for a half-hour, network-quality situation comedy produced in Los Angeles in front of a live audience. Note that the program is rehearsed and recorded over a three-day period.

This schedule includes some elements that we have not discussed. For example, it includes a special run-through for network executives, who preview the episode before it is recorded and voice any concerns they may have about the content. Also, because most situation comedies are recorded in front of a live audience, time needs to be allotted to load the audience into the studio. And, although it might seem that all the rehearsing and shooting are complete at 10:00 p.m. on the third production day, additional time is allotted for pickups: retakes of shots that are flawed because of technical problems or problems with the performance.

Directing Multiple Cameras: Studio and Remotes

As we discussed earlier, multicamera production involves the use of two or more cameras that are connected through a video switcher, which is used to accomplish instantaneous editing by switching from one camera to another in real time. Multicamera production requires a high level of coordination among everyone on the production team. Next we’ll take a look at the way in which directors interact with the performers, how the director marks his or her script, and the communication commands that a director uses during multicamera productions.

■ Directing the Performers

As a creative leader, the director has the responsibility to ensure that the talent’s performance is appropriately delivered. Each type of program will determine the kind of performance that is demanded of the talent. A talk show or game show host will certainly perform in a much different way than a performer in an episodic drama. In either case the director will guide the performers through the production process so that their performances are credible and effective.

■ Script Marking and Director’s Commands

Directors mark their scripts with a special shorthand system of symbols that helps them to keep track of preplanned camera shots and camera movements, special effects, and graphics. A well-marked script helps the director to call these elements into action at the right time. The director also uses special terminology and a special set of commands to communicate with members of the crew. (See Figure 9.1.)

The symbols and commands that directors use are not universal, and even though some of them have been standardized, different directors may use different symbols to express the same action. The important thing to remember is that, whatever the system of symbols and commands that is used, it is in essence a communication scheme, and as such, the director must make sure that the communication flow is smooth and efficient. Table 9.2 lists the most common script-marking symbols used by directors of multicamera television productions. The director also uses abbreviated symbols to describe the framing for the most common camera angles. (See Table 9.3.)

One of the hardest things a director’s apprentice encounters early in his or her training is the set of commands that is used to start a program. To illustrate this, we use the example of a program that involves an interview with a host and a guest. Voice is picked up by using lavaliere mics on the host and guest who are seated on the set and do not move around. There is a CG keyed over the guest and no music. (Usually, there is some sort of music or effects at the start of the show. The commands to call them follow the same rules as commands to call camera shots.) Remember, at this point everyone is depending on the director to make the right calls, on time, concisely, and precisely through the intercom system.

Figure 9.2 presents a floor plan for our sample interview. Table 9.4 shows the director’s commands at the beginning and end of the show, and Table 9.5 illustrates the director’s commands at the end of the interview program.

■ Interview Floor Plan

Figure 9.2 shows that three cameras are being used to shoot the interview. This is the optimum number of cameras to use in shooting a two-person studio interview. Notice that camera placement follows the 180-degree rule that was discussed Chapter 8.

This three-camera setup provides for the following shots:

Sometimes this type of interview will be shot with only two cameras, with either camera 1 or camera 2 trucking to the side to cover the shot the third camera would be covering if it were available.

Table 9.6 shows the director’s basic commands during the interview show. Notice that from now on the director calls the camera only by its number: 1, 2, or 3. There is no need to say “camera 1,” “camera 2,” or “camera 3” each time a camera is called for.

■ Camera Shot Sheets

Once the director has made all the decisions about visualization and continuity for the show, she or he can prepare camera shot sheets for each of the camera operators. Shot sheets are attached to the back of the camera to help camera operators prepare for upcoming shots. Shots in these sheets should be numbered as they appear in the script. Table 9.7 shows the camera shot sheet for our interview example.

■ Rundown

Whereas a script shows every spoken word in a program, a rundown summarizes the major segments of a show and is used by the director as a guide to follow the order of segments as the show goes on. A rundown sheet shows the basic structure of the show. It lists the order of the segments, the topic or subject of each segment and its length, and various technical and aesthetic requirements, such as the need to incorporate sources such as video clips or music. (See Figure 9.3.)

■ Backtiming

Backtiming is a technique that is used in live or recorded live shows to make sure that the planned running time for a show is adhered to. To accomplish this, it is important to know the running time of each of the show’s segments. (The rundown sheet is very useful here.) The last segment is the most critical because this is the segment that can be shortened or stretched depending on how much time is left until the end of the show.

It is sometimes more important to keep track of how much time is left until the end of the show than it is to know how far into the show or segment you are. For instance, suppose you are directing a 25-minute live show. You have five segments of five minutes each. When your assistant director tells you that there are ten minutes left in the show (15 minutes into it), you ought to know that at that moment the third segment should be ending. If you realize that you are four minutes into the segment, you know that you are running one minute late and will have to either wrap up the segment immediately or adjust the timing of the fourth or the fifth (last) segment to adhere to the 25-minute time limit originally planned for the program.

■ Floor Manager Cues

Although the director can communicate with the technical personnel in the studio and control room through the PL intercom system, the director also needs to communicate with the talent in the studio to give them instructions on time remaining, which camera to speak to, and so on. Because the talent do not wear headphones, these instructions must be relayed by the floor manager while the microphones are on; therefore this must be done silently through the use of a system of hand signals. Figure 9.4 illustrates some of the most common hand signals used by floor managers.

■ Two Typical Multicamera Program Formats

There are myriad program formats that can be produced in a multicamera studio environment or remote environment. In-studio programs are done in a controlled environment. Remote productions are produced on location with significantly less control of the production environment that the studio offers. In the next section we briefly discuss directorial issues for two typical multicamera program formats: the in-studio panel discussion program and a live automated newscast.

• THE PANEL DISCUSSION PROGRAM FORMAT A panel discussion program usually includes a host and two or more panelists. Panel programs are very common on public television and public access television, and they are a staple of public affairs programs broadcast by the commercial networks on Sunday mornings. Panelists are typically specialists on the topic of interest and usually represent opposing points of view.

Seating arrangements on the set will depend on the particular needs and desires of the producer and director regarding the look and feel of the show or the ease of camera movements and their placement. The producer or director may decide to place the host or moderator in the middle and the panelists on the sides or have the host at one end or on the right or left side of the panel. Remember to follow the rules of continuity and observe the 180-degree rule when deciding where to place the cameras.

In our example (see Figure 9.5) we placed the host on the right side and used three cameras to cover the event. Camera 1 is used mainly to cover the host, although it can also get a 2-shot of the host and the panelist on his right. Camera 2 can shoot the long establishing shot or a 2- or 3-shot of the panelists. Camera 3 covers the panelists for close-ups and 2- or 3- shots or over-the-shoulder shots from behind the host onto the panelists.

Although a director’s creativity will ultimately dictate the shooting scheme of the show, there are two important guiding principles that should be followed in directing panel discussion programs: show close-ups or medium close-ups of whoever is talking, and look for reaction shots—either a close-up of one person or a group reaction—from the other people on the panel.

• LIVE AUTOMATED NEWSCAST Live newscasts are a staple of local television station and national network news operations, as well as many college and university television operations. Due to the complexity of the newscast, many television news operations today rely on computer software that automates many of the production tasks, including camera operations, video switching, and the integration of audio and graphic elements. (See Figure 9.6.)

Because so many of the production tasks are automated, the newscast can be produced with a skeleton crew: one or two news producers who select the stories to be broadcast and write the news copy that the news anchor will read; perhaps a director and an audio engineer in the control room; and the news anchor and a floor director on the studio floor. The director calls the shots just as if there was a full crew—but his or her directorial commands in an automated newscast are meant to be heard by the audio engineer who needs to open and close studio microphones, and the floor director, who needs to cue the anchor to read the news copy to the camera that is on air. (See Figure 9.7.)

Instead of punching up each shot on the video switcher as it is called, the director may simply press the space bar on the computer keyboard to advance the program from one story to the next. All of the necessary production information (type of transition, camera to come up on air, camera framing, and selection and position of graphics and animation in the frame) are controlled by the computer system. When the director hits the space bar the program moves from one story to the next.

Earlier in this chapter we discussed the concept of the rundown sheet. Figure 9.8 shows a part of the rundown sheet for a live newscast produced in San Francisco. In this rundown sheet you can see that each page indicated on the rundown contains all the relevant information for each story segment to be broadcast, including whether the news anchor is on camera or not, the source of the video graphics to be used, the duration of each segment, and so on.

Directing Single-Camera Productions

Unlike multicamera production in which a show is edited instantaneously with the use of a video switcher, in single-camera production a director is mainly concerned with shooting repeated takes of individual shots. (See Figure 9.9.) The final program is then assembled in postproduction. There is a wide range of programs that are shot single-camera style, and each of them requires a different production approach. However, regardless of the type of program, there are certain principles to which a good director must adhere when shooting a single-camera production.

In this section we will learn about the principles of shooting for postproduction. We will also take a look at some of the most common programs done in single-camera style production: on-site interviews, documentaries, music videos, and public service announcements.

■ Shooting to Edit

As we stated earlier, in almost all single-camera field productions the director shoots material that will be edited together in postproduction. The following guidelines should be considered in shooting material that is going to be edited in postproduction.

• SHOOT ESTABLISHING SHOTS The function of the establishing shot is to set the scene; it tells the viewer where the action is happening. Establishing shots, most often in the form of extreme long shots or long shots, show the relationship of the parts to each other and to the scene as a whole. An establishing shot is essential if the viewer, who otherwise has no knowledge of the scene or setting, is to make sense of the scene.

• COVER THE ACTION When you look at a situation or scene, try to identify the principal action or events. Break scenes or events down into their principal components, and then try to cover them. For example, if you are commissioned to videotape a wedding, you could break that event into components like these:

1. Prewedding activities: Bride dressing, arrival of groom at church, bride’s drive to church, and so on.
2. Ceremony: Arrival of bride, walk into church and down the aisle, ceremony including exchange of rings and traditional kiss, and so on.
3. After ceremony: Walk down the aisle and out of church, throwing rice or birdseed at bride and groom, drive to reception, reception line, cutting the cake, and so on.

By breaking down the event into component parts, you can determine what you need to cover to faithfully capture the essence of the event. Breaking down an event into components also tells you whether you need one camera or more. If you have only one camera, you can decide which parts of the event are most important and plan to cover these.

• REPEAT THE ACTION IF POSSIBLE If you have only one camera to shoot an event and the participants are willing and able to repeat the action, you can shoot the same event from different angles. In traditional Hollywood film-style shooting, the director provides a master shot of the entire scene shot on a wide-angle lens. Then the scene is repeated from several additional angles to provide close-up details of the major characters or actions in the scene.

For example, if you are recording a musical group, you can do one take of a song on a wide shot, then shoot a close-up of the lead singer, and then perhaps do a third take, shooting close-ups of the instrumentalists during solo segments. For editing, this provides a cover shot (the long shot of the whole group) plus repeated action of the significant details from which to assemble your segment.

Whether or not your subject can repeat the action depends to a certain extent on the nature of the action. Product demonstrations and dramatic scenes lend themselves quite readily to multiple takes of repeated action. You will mostly likely have more success in arranging multiple takes with the music recording session just described than with your local hockey team’s score of a game-winning goal. Instant replays, unfortunately, are not a characteristic of real life.

If you are shooting a program from a script that involves dialog or action, then the technique of overlapping should be used. Begin each new shot by repeating the action or dialog that ended the previous shot. This shooting technique greatly simplifies the editor’s task.

• SHOOT ESSENTIAL DETAILS In addition to the overall action or principal of a scene, what are the essential details? Shoot close-up shots of essential details of the event to be used as cut-ins, and shoot other related details that are not part of the scene itself to be used as cutaways. For example, if you are shooting an interview with a painter who is discussing current events projects, you might also shoot some footage of the artist at work. Shots at work might include wide shots of the painter in the studio as well as close-ups of the brush moving against the canvas. A cut from a shot of the painter talking on camera during the interview to a shot of the painter at work is a cutaway. A cut from the wide shot of the artist in the studio to a close-up of the brush moving is a cut-in.

• SHOOT MATERIALS FOR TRANSITIONS Think ahead about how you are going to achieve your transitions from one segment or scene to another. Let’s assume that you are constructing a program out of interviews of people from different geographical areas and with different opinions about the safety of nuclear energy. When assembling the program, how will you make a transition between interviewees in different areas and/or with different opinions? Will you use an on-camera narrator to bridge the gap? Or will you use a voice-over and some shots of nuclear plants? You should have an idea of the transition shots that you intend to use before you go out to shoot so that you can be sure to get the appropriate footage on tape.

• SHOOT SEGMENTS LONG ENOUGH FOR EDITING In the days of videotape recording the mechanics of most video systems required that any segments of tape to be used during editing must have at least five seconds of preroll material to allow the tape to get up to speed and for the image to stabilize. Digital clip-based recording eliminates the need for material to “come up to speed” when it is played back—the video is instantly available. However, recording some additional material at the head and tail of each shot is still good practice, as it gives you some additional video shot material in case you want to add transition effects such as dissolves or wipes during editing. Get in the habit of recording five to ten seconds of material at the head and tail of each video clip.

■ Directing On-Site Interviews

One of the most common remote shooting situations is the on-site interview. Because television equipment has become so portable, it is a rather simple operation to travel to the home or office of the person you want to interview and shoot the interview in the subject’s normal environment rather than in the artificial television studio environment.

Almost all on-site interviews are shot with a single camera, and as a result, the videographer must shoot all the angles needed to edit the interview into a coherent sequence. The interview must have both content and visual continuity.

One of the common techniques used in on-site interviews, especially for news and documentaries, is the question re-ask technique. After the interview is over, you can shoot the interviewer asking the questions. Make sure that the questions are re-asked in the same location, with the same background; most important, make sure that the re-asked questions are the same as the original questions. If the questions are in a script, the interviewer can simply re-ask them into the camera after the real interview has been completed. If the questions are ad-libbed, a production assistant should make a record of the questions while the interview is in progress. If there is any doubt about what was actually asked, you can always refer to the video itself, because the subject’s microphone will have picked up the question even if the interviewer did not wear a microphone. Directors have the ethical responsibility to make sure that the questions that are re-asked and the answers that are given in the edited version of the program correspond to what was actually asked and answered in the original interview.

The following factors should be considered in setting up an on-site interview: position of the subject, position of the interviewer, position of the camera, and principal action axis.

• POSITION OF THE SUBJECT When you travel to the home or office of the subject of your interview, you can show the subject in his or her normal working or living environment. The subject should be placed comfortably, facing the camera, where you can take advantage of the surroundings to provide rich background detail to the interview. In many cases, particularly when the interview takes place in an office, your subject will be sitting behind a desk. In the home, the subject will normally be sitting in a chair or on a couch. With your subject in position for the interview, examine the background to be sure that it does not distract from the subject. Lamps and pictures on the wall often provide unwanted distractions. If they interfere with the composition of your shot, move them into a more favorable position.

Be careful not to position the subject in front of a window. If there is a window in the background and you cannot move the subject so that the window is out of the shot, close the window blinds or draperies when shooting during the day to avoid silhouetting the subject. Also, be aware that if you need to need to light the subject, you should not mix color temperatures. In your lighting kit, always carry blue gels to place in front of your lighting instruments to match the color temperature of the light coming through the window.

• POSITION OF THE INTERVIEWER There are two possible positions in which to place the interviewer: next to the subject or somewhat in front of the subject with the interviewer’s back to the camera. The best place for the interviewer is in front of the subject, with his or her back to the camera. Placement of the interviewer next to the subject may make the subject feel more comfortable, since this approximates a normal sitting position for conversations, but it will consistently present the camera with a poor view of the subject, who will have a tendency to turn toward the interviewer and away from camera.

• POSITION OF THE CAMERA The camera should be positioned slightly behind the interviewer and off to one side. (See Figure 9.10.) In this position the camera can easily shoot a three-quarter profile of the subject as well as an over the-shoulder shot of the interviewer and subject. From this position the subject will always be able to maintain easy eye contact with the interviewer and will present the camera with an almost full-face shot.

When you are setting up the position of the interviewer and the subject, try to keep the distance between them relatively short so they can speak comfortably to each other and keep the camera behind the interviewer. The camera should be able to zoom in to a tight close-up (TCU) on the subject.

Some producers like to use the 2/3 x 1/3 rule when positioning the camera, interviewer, and the subject. In this scheme, the camera is twice as far from the subject as the subject is from the immediate background. Put another way, the distance from the subject to the background is “x” and the distance from the camera to the subject is “2x.” (See Figure 9.11.) The perception of depth can be enhanced by placing the interview subject so the camera shoots into a corner of the room, rather than directly at a wall behind the subject.

• PRINCIPAL ACTION AXIS A principal action axis is formed in an interview setting, just as it is in an action-oriented scene, and the camera must remain in the 180-degree semicircle formed by the principal action axis.

■ Directing the Music Video

Music video segments representing a range of musical styles and target audiences are visible at almost any time of day on most cable television systems in the United States. MTV (Music Television), VH-1 (Video Hits 1), the Disney Channel, and Country Music Television (CMT) are four cable television channels that regularly feature music video segments. Many music videos are produced as promotional pieces for new musical artists or new songs recorded by established performers. Some music videos, particularly those targeted at children and featured on the Disney Channel or as segments in the PBS television series Sesame Street, are designed to teach something to their audience as well as entertain them.

All music videos combine a sound track of a musical performance with appropriate visual images. Some music videos focus exclusively on the musical artist(s) in performance of their work, other music videos dramatize the narrative found in the lyrics of the song, and still others combine elements of the musical performance with images dramatizing the song. Determine which approach best suits your performer and the performance you have chosen to present.

Music videos can be as simple or complex as we want them to be. The planning process for music video production begins by establishing the concept and defining the theme and structure of the video by examining the selected music very closely. Next, select and scout locations to determine their visual potential and ensure the feasibility of the shoot. Produce a storyboard and a shot list. Listen closely to the beat and rhythm in the different parts of the song, and plan your shots to match these elements in the postproduction phase. When working with musicians and other performers, be sure to rehearse the video thoroughly. One final and important guideline is to make sure you have addressed all of the important legal and safety issues. Make sure you have clearance for the music and releases from all the performers.

■ The Public Service Announcement (PSA)

Public service announcements (PSAs) are a standard feature of commercial broadcast schedules. The Federal Communications Commission defines a PSA as

Although most PSAs are noncontroversial, some organizations use the PSA format to develop spot messages about controversial issues of public importance.

PSAs attempt to mobilize people to action by making them aware of significant community or social issues. PSAs usually provide a phone number or website address that viewers can use to get more information about the organization or issue featured in the PSA.

Because television stations air the majority of PSAs at no charge as a community service, PSAs are often inserted into the broadcast schedule at off-hours when the number of viewers is small. However, some government agencies and nonprofit organizations purchase airtime in more popular time slots to reach a larger audience and increase the effectiveness of their messages.

Designing and producing PSAs require the development of a strategic plan that includes research and addresses the issues of production, distribution, and evaluation. Research will inform the producer and director of the problem or need that is being addressed and clearly identify the target audience. Also, be sure to contact television stations that are likely to broadcast your PSA to find out each station’s requirements for video format and length. Preferred spot lengths include 10, 15, 20, 30, and 60 seconds. A script of the PSA should be submitted as well.

Following are some guidelines for producing and directing a PSA:

• Research the subject well, and make sure the PSA recommends a specific action. There needs to be a request for a response from the viewer in the form of change in an attitude or behavior (e.g., “stop smoking” or “visit this website for more information”).
• Identify the main issue in the first 10 seconds by using strong visuals or a compelling word or phrase that grabs the viewer’s attention.
• Keep the message simple, and make sure that every word and visual is carefully chosen. If you have a presenter, make sure she or he is considered to be credible. If your PSA takes a humorous approach to the subject, make sure it is not offensive to your audience. Formative research can help here. (Remember our production model in Chapter 8?) Test the effectiveness of your spot by showing it to a test audience before you finalize it.
• Select your approach—testimonial, demonstration, or real-life scenes—carefully and make sure the language used is appropriate for your audience.
• Show a phone number to call or a website address on the screen for at least five seconds, and reinforce it orally within the PSA. Use a font that is large and easy to read.
• Repeat the main point of the PSA at the end of the message.

■ Planning and Directing the Documentary

Documentaries can be seen at almost any time of day on most cable television systems in the United States. The documentary format is usually associated with the truthful representation of people and events. Documentaries present a factual representation of reality.

Early documentary makers, such as Flaherty in the United States, Grierson and Rotha in Great Britain, and Vertov and Eisenstein in Russia, conceived the documentary as a film genre attending to social issues in the “real world.” They developed and used documentary as an instrument of persuasion and as a tool for influencing public opinion. It was cinema with a social purpose.

Today, the documentary has evolved into a variety of forms, and most documentaries are shot on video, not film. There are many ways to structure a documentary, and it is up to the director to decide the best approach to achieve his or her desired objectives.

The elements of a documentary—voice, camera, characters, pictures, and music—can be woven together in many different ways. A director may decide to use a direct address approach in which the story is told by addressing the viewer directly with titles, on-screen commentators, or voice-over. “Talking head” interviews (MCU or CU) of witnesses or experts may be part of the storytelling scheme.

Alternatively, a director may use a direct cinema or cinema verité approach. In direct cinema the camera never interferes with the action; it is a passive observer. In cinema verité the story is told without voice-over or narration. The camera is more interactive, hand-held, and participants are aware of its presence and may address the audience or members of the crew directly.

A director may also choose to combine approaches or do reenactments in which people and events are recreated by actors on specially designed sets. A good example of this can be found in the documentaries of Ken Burns. Burns became famous because of his 11-hour documentary series The Civil War, which was broadcast on PBS. He used dramatized voice-overs and narration of Civil War–era personal letters and documents combined with extensive camera zooming and panning over still images—photographs, paintings, maps, and documents. This was juxtaposed with present footage of historic sites and interviews with modern-day commentators to recreate a story from the past.

Burns became so well known for using camera motion to animate still images that Apple’s popular iMovie video editing software includes a “Ken Burns” effect in its effects menu: the user identifies points in a photo to zoom in or out or to pan to, and the iMovie software creates the zooming/panning effect on the image.

Following are some basic guidelines for producing and directing documentaries:

• Choose a topic, research it, identify the key elements about the subject, and develop an in-depth treatment of the topic. Think about your audience, as this will help to determine how to tell your story.
• Decide on the structure of your story, and develop your documentary approach. Will you use voice-over? Reenactments of events? An on-camera narrator? Photographs?
• Make a list of the human and technical resources you will need to complete the project. Organize your list into the resources you must have, the ones that would be helpful to have, and the ones that you could do without if necessary.
• Draw up a tentative but sound preproduction, production, and postproduction plan. Remember that although planning is essential, things may change during the location shooting. So be prepared to modify your production plans as circumstances dictate.
• Collect all materials related to the topic, and set up a good archiving system.
• During production, make sure you get releases from the people who appear on camera, as well as location releases for the places in which you shoot. Also, make sure you use your best people skills when dealing with people. Treating everyone with respect is a key principle.
• Decide what the role of the camera will be. Will it be active and intrusive or a passive observer? What about camera movement? When will you use a tripod? When will the camera be hand-held? Think about how you will frame the interviewees. Will you use a close-up for all of them for unity, or will framing depend on the setting? Make a list of the questions you plan to ask during each interview. Listen closely to what is said in the interview so that you can plan to shoot appropriate B-roll for cutaways. B-roll is additional video used to visually enhance and support the story. It is mostly used as background for voice-overs and talking heads.
• What are the lighting conditions? Do they meet your criteria for the look and feel that you wish to capture? Will you need to use lighting instruments? If you use lighting instruments, will that create color temperature problems?
• What about audio? How many microphones will you need? What type? Will you use lavalieres or pickup sound with a boom mic? Don’t forget to record plenty of natural sound.
• Before you begin postproduction, make sure you make accurate and detailed logs of all your footage. Transcribe all of your interviews, and neatly type up the transcripts. Make notes about shots that are particularly good or bad. Identify critical sound bites in each of your interviews.
• Remember, it is during editing that your documentary story will be constructed. The editing stage will determine how well your story is told.
• Think about your main point. Go back to your original outline and treatment. Does every editing decision reflect your main point? Does your shot sequence tell the story?
• Think about other sound elements. If you use narration, is there too much or too little? Do you have the appropriate person to voice it? What about music? Does it reflect the mood of the story? Do you have the necessary releases to use the music you have selected?
• Think about graphics and transitions. Used effectively, they can enhance and clarify the story.

Of course, there are many other issues to think about in directing and editing your documentary, but if you follow these guidelines and keep focused on your main point and initial visualization, you will increase your odds of delivering a well-told story.

The Role of the Director in Postproduction

The director is responsible for making major video editing and audio mixing decisions during postproduction. Remember, however, that if your program was produced by using multiple cameras fed through a video switcher, postproduction time may be reduced significantly because you will already have an instantaneously edited version of the program. But if your program was produced single-camera style, most likely you will have a lot of editing to do to complete your program.

If postproduction editing is required, the first step in the process is to carefully log all the video that has been shot. Then the director will work with the editor to produce a rough cut of the program. This rough cut is a first draft of the program that can be evaluated by the producers or other interested parties. During this editing stage in which the rough cut is produced, the director will make initial decisions about shot sequences, the use of voice-over, background music, natural sound, and graphics. Once the rough cut version has been completed and reviewed and changes have been approved, the director will work with the editor to make the final finished version of the program. The entire process of postproduction editing is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10.