Aberdeen Proving Ground, 159, 198, 232, 235, 240, 242, 256, 263, 277, 280, 296, 322, 313, 325; in First World War, 134, 136–38, 140–42, 144, 151–54, 264; 1936 reorganization of, 195, 234, 240, 242; and University of Pennsylvania, 257–59; and veterans of First World War, 178, 179, 195, 205, 223, 236, 240, 259
Abramowitz, Milton, 206, 250, 285, 291, 313, 314, 325; and LORAN, 250–52, 277, 285
Académie des Sciences (France), 19, 20, 22–24, 34, 35, 75, 234
accuracy of computations, 167, 168, 219, 259, 263, 267, 304, 319; astronomical accuracy, 92, 162; checking for errors, 21, 166, 184, 186, 214, 215; differencing (see mathematical methods); double computation, 30, 40. See also comets, precision of prediction for
actuaries, 2, 4, 60, 61, 93, 102, 124, 189, 190, 236, 237. See also insurance
Addams, Jane, 100
adding machines. See calculating machines
Admiralty Computing Service, 261–64, 281–83, 295, 301, 325
Aerospace Research Laboratories, 312, 315
agricultural statistics. See statistics, agricultural
Aiken, Howard, 229–33, 254, 287, 288, 300, 325; and Mark I computing machine, 230, 231, 272, 277, 287; and Second World War, 272, 275, 277
aircraft. See aviation
Airy, George, 49–54, 59, 62, 64, 65, 113, 120, 132, 321, 325
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 56, 57, 316
American Mathematical Society, 202, 205, 209, 236, 291
American Nautical Almanac and Ephemeris. See Nautical Almanac, American
American Telephone and Telegraph, 170, 179. See also Bell Telephone Laboratories
Applied Mathematics Panel, 253–55, 258, 264–69, 271–74, 276, 278–86, 288, 289, 313, 317, 325; and computing machines, 268, 271, 277; demobilization of, 276–78, 285, 288, 289; and lack of postwar vision, 279, 280; and Rockefeller Foundation, 264
Archibald, Raymond Claire, 211, 235–39, 242, 246, 285–88, 293, 294, 311, 325; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 236, 237, 256, 257, 261; and Mathematical Tables Project, 291, 294; and National Research Council, 238, 239, 256; and Rockefeller Foundation, 238, 257
army. See United States Army
Astronomer Royal (England), 15, 21, 27, 47, 50, 53, 92, 124. See also Royal Greenwich Observatory
astronomy, 5–7, 11–25, 27, 29, 30, 37–40, 43, 48–50, 55, 71, 79, 83, 87, 92, 98–100, 103, 116, 124, 128, 138, 143, 181, 191–94, 237, 239, 274; data reduction in, 50, 64, 82, 108, 120, 136, 172, 193, 230; and orbital calculations, 11–16, 20–25, 46, 48, 59–62, 70, 88, 119–21, 123–25, 130, 148, 178, 230, 301, 302, 319; and Claudius Ptolemy and the Almagest, 5. See also calculus, and three-body problem; comets; Halley’s comet
Atanasoff, John Vincent, 225–33, 281, 311, 325; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 268; and computing machines, 226–29, 232, 268
atomic bomb. See Manhattan Project
aviation, 127, 241. See also Langley Field
Babbage, Charles, 5, 6, 38–45, 47, 50, 53, 54, 56, 57, 69, 104, 172, 173, 230, 321, 325; and analytical engine, 44, 230; and difference engine, 41–44, 53, 54, 56, 69, 92, 173, 215, 288
ballistics, 3, 4, 6, 7, 72, 74, 97, 98, 128–31, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 151, 152, 181, 189, 195, 239, 247, 253, 261, 283, 289, 296; and antiaircraft artillery, 129, 130, 132, 137, 141, 278; calculations in, 130–32, 136, 156, 235, 259, 271, 281; and differential analyzer, 178, 234, 258–61, 268, 283; Moulton theory in, 141, 142, 179; Siacci theory, 129, 130, 141; trajectories, 264, 280, 281, 283, 289, 301, 302
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 178–80, 189, 216, 221, 223, 226–28, 232, 233, 237, 242, 249, 253, 261, 268, 272, 280, 287, 310, 311, 326; mathematics and computing division of, 169–71, 179, 180, 221, 227. See also American Telephone and Telegraph
Bennett, A. A., 179, 211, 326; chair of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 234, 235
binary arithmetic. See mathematical methods
Biometrics Laboratory. See Galton Laboratory
Blanch, Gertrude, 212–17, 219, 234, 239, 247–50, 258, 269–73, 289, 299–304, 307, 308–17, 318, 322, 326; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 254, 272; background and education of, 206–9; and Hans Bethe, 219; and ElectroData Corporation, 311, 312; and Institute for Numerical Analysis, 299–304, 310; and President Lyndon Johnson, 316, 317; loyalty and security problems of, 248, 249, 307, 307–10, 312
Bliss, Gilbert, 178, 195, 259, 260, 278
bombing calculations, 129, 141, 247, 253, 266, 269, 270, 285
Bowditch, Ingersoll, 66
Briggs, Henry, 6
Briggs, Lyman, 202, 203, 205, 210, 211, 217, 244, 257, 258, 284, 289
British Admiralty, 27–29, 33, 47–50, 172, 196, 281, 282
British Association for the Advancement of Science Mathematical Tables Committee. See Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS)
Brown, Ernest, 192
Brunsviga. See calculating machines, Brunsviga
Bureau du Cadastre, 33–38, 40, 51, 326
Burroughs, William Seward, 93, 96, 326
Bush, Vannevar, 178–90, 201, 326
Cahn, Albert, 300, 301, 303, 306, 307
calculating machines, 171, 177, 220, 221, 272; Atanasoff’s machine (ABC), 227–29, 232, 268, 281, 311; Bell Labs, complex calculator of, 223, 224, 227, 232; Brunsviga, 106, 117, 121, 154, 155, 169, 174, 262, 326; Burroughs Arithmometer, 93, 96; Felt Comptometer, 93, 96; isograph computing machine, 222, 226; Mark I (Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator), 231, 232, 277, 287; mass production of, 7, 41, 92, 93, 96, 117, 121, 142, 157, 165, 171, 188, 198, 207, 217, 220, 221, 225, 229, 230, 233, 242, 244, 255, 283, 285, 287, 301, 326; Millionaire and Mercedes calculators 171; Model K, 223, 227; Monroe calculator, 183, 230; National Accounting Machine, 172–74, 263; Pascal adding mechanism, 41, 93; price of compared to computer salary, 95, 220, 223, 231, 268; Sustrand adding machines, 220, 243; Thomas Arithmometer, 92, 93. See also difference engine; differential analyzer; punched card machines; computers, electronic stored programs; International Business Machines
calculus, 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 12–16, 26, 27, 59, 81, 100, 106, 121, 182, 258, 321, 322; and three-body problem, 14–16, 20, 28, 79, 128, 192
California, University of, at Los Angeles. See UCLA
Cambridge University, 11, 38, 50, 51, 261
Carnegie Institute of Washington, 116, 117, 180. See also Newcomb, Simon, Institute for the Exact Sciences
Carnot, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite, 37
Cave-Brown-Cave, Beatrice, 111, 112, 130, 131
Cave-Brown-Cave, Frances, 111, 112, 130, 168, 263, 326
Census. See United States Census
Chicago World’s Fair. See World’s Columbian Exposition
Civil War (American), 70–79, 81, 129
Clairaut, Alexis Claude, 16, 17, 20–25, 27, 37, 53, 107, 120, 121, 128, 321, 326
Coast Survey Office. See United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
Cold War, 5, 7, 194, 248, 249, 298, 304–6
Colmar, Charles Xavier Thomas de, 92, 93, 327
Columbia University, 94, 133, 136, 140, 166, 170, 195, 231, 303; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 266, 267, 273, 274, 285; Astronomical Computing Bureau (see Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau); and Mathematical Tables Project, 202–5, 216; and Soviet visitors, 194, 248, 249; Statistical Computing Office, 190–94
comets, 72, 120, 130, 301, 302; of Maria Mitchell, 61, 62; precision of prediction for, 15, 23, 24, 49, 120–23, 318–21. See also Halley’s comet
Committee for Conducting Statistical Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals, 106–8
Communist Party. See Cold War; Soviet Union; Mathematical Tables Project, security within
complex arithmetic. See mathematical methods; calculating machines
Computation Laboratory. See Mathematical Tables Project
Computers, electronic stored programs, 5, 7, 230, 272, 273, 285, 287–89, 299, 303, 304, 311–15, 318, 319, 321. See also calculating machines; ENIAC; UNIVAC
computers, human, 4, 7, 48, 53, 70, 98, 120, 172, 276, 288, 293; and agriculture, 159, 166, 188; and ballistics, 74, 129, 130, 132, 136, 140, 141, 144, 151, 152, 153, 260, 261, 271, 283; and biology, 106, 108, 110, 130; boys as, 50–52, 59, 113, 132, 321; and calculating machines, 7, 69, 92, 93, 96, 120, 142, 157, 165, 166, 168, 171, 188, 213, 217, 220–23, 225, 226, 231, 234, 242, 255, 258, 259, 274, 285, 287, 291, 312; and clerical labor, 49, 52, 81, 94, 95, 96, 126, 147, 198, 256, 287, 292; compared to machines, 43, 54, 70, 114, 168, 231, 267, 268, 275, 288, 303; compared to operators, 164, 168, 231, 258, 259, 267; cost of calculation by, 67, 79, 83, 84, 95, 143, 160, 223, 227, 231, 259, 267, 268; division of labor among (see division of labor); education and training of, 7, 51, 59, 68, 76, 78, 106, 113, 132, 133, 141, 156, 196, 210, 212, 252, 258, 259, 261, 273, 282; and electronic programmable computers, 231, 263, 264, 273, 285, 288, 295, 296, 302–4, 312, 313, 316, 318, 319, 312; instructions and plans for, 30, 36, 37, 52, 63, 78, 120, 124, 201, 213; labor discontent among, 52, 83, 86, 113, 114, 131, 151, 292–94; management of, 68, 70, 78, 113, 114, 131, 133, 136, 137, 144, 167, 196, 197, 203, 214, 215, 216, 263, 269, 277, 278, 301, 321; and mathematical tables, 125, 184, 185, 232, 281, 285, 313, 314; and mathematics, 78, 81, 121, 140–42, 159; and meteorology, 76, 77, 143; professional institutions for, 7, 173, 179, 181, 197, 236, 239; professionalization of, 7, 177, 181, 239, 243, 255, 285, 286; professional literature for, 7, 157, 177, 179–81, 185, 186, 195, 199, 236–39, 257, 261, 272, 286, 312–14; reference books for, 63, 84, 156, 157, 177; social status of, 19, 24, 36, 52, 67, 71, 110, 113, 133, 141, 167, 196, 200, 212, 221, 253, 276, 280, 283, 288; and statistics, 106, 108, 116, 117, 148, 188; and surveying, 65, 72, 78, 93, 159; wages of, 52, 64, 67, 79, 82–84, 95, 111, 113, 160, 220, 223, 247, 259, 267, 268; and war, 71–73, 74, 126–43, 145, 151, 253, 269, 313; and women, 24, 61, 81–88, 102, 103, 106, 110–12, 126, 138–40, 147, 152, 167, 168, 170, 189, 190, 218, 230, 238, 252, 253, 256, 258–61, 276, 282, 303; working conditions of, 51, 53, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 87, 95, 96, 111–13, 117, 142, 144, 170, 171, 210, 215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 250, 260, 263, 268, 269, 291, 300, 301. See also Aberdeen Proving Ground; Babbage, Charles; Bureau Cadastre; Connaissance des Temps; de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche; Harvard University, Observatory; Mathematical Tables Project; Nautical Almanac, American; Nautical Almanac, British; Royal Greenwich Observatory
computing forms, 37, 52, 54, 63, 76, 77, 94, 143, 147, 148, 213–15, 217, 219, 220, 246
Computing, Tabulating and Recording Company (CTR). See International Business Machines
Comrie, Leslie J., 154–57, 172, 179, 186, 192, 215, 219, 221, 240, 242, 263, 276, 287, 288, 311, 321, 326; and British Nautical Almanac, 172–74, 196; and calculating machines, 171, 172, 174, 193, 261, 263; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 196, 237, 257; and Mathematical Tables Committee, 173, 174; and Mathematical Tables Project, 211, 215, 251, 252; and Scientific Computing Service, 196, 197, 239, 261
Condon, Edward, 289–91, 305, 306, 309
Connaissance des Temps, 24, 29–31, 36, 65, 68, 75
Cornell University, 140, 166, 178, 208, 209, 218
cottage industries. See division of labor
Courant, Richard, 253, 267, 279, 281, 283, 284
Cowles, Alfred, 186–90, 225, 327
Cowles Commission for Economic Research, 188, 195, 327
Crommelin, Andrew, 119–21, 123, 130, 179, 318, 319, 321, 327
Curtiss, John, 219, 290–92, 295, 296, 299, 300, 302, 303, 309, 313; and Mathematical Tables Project, 219, 290–94, 298, 299
d’Alembert, Jean le Rond, 23, 24, 325
Davis, Charles Henry, 57–68, 74, 75, 78, 81, 113, 181, 232, 327; and Shakespeare, 58, 64, 71; and United States Congress, 67, 68, 70
Davis, H. T., 180–88, 202, 203, 211, 219, 225, 239, 311, 327; and Indiana University computing lab, 183–86; and Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 195, 196, 201, 237; and Tables of Higher Mathematical Functions, 185, 186, 188
de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche, 34–38, 40, 43, 45, 46, 51, 92, 215, 275, 321, 327
decimal angle measure, 34, 38, 40
difference engine, 43, 44, 53, 54, 69, 92, 172, 173, 287, 288, 327; Airy’s opinion of, 53, 54; and American Nautical Almanac, 69, 70, 242; of Charles Babbage (see Babbage, Charles); and L. J. Comrie, 173; at Institute for Numerical Analysis, 301; of George and Edvard Scheutz, 69, 70, 92, 173
differencing. See mathematical methods
differential analyzer, 178, 179, 190, 260, 261, 268, 272, 281, 287, 327; of Aberdeen Proving Ground, 234, 235, 258, 259; differential equations and, 121, 130, 143, 148, 166, 178, 194, 218, 229, 234, 267, 327; of Germany, 281, 283; of the University of Pennsylvania, 258, 259, 261
division of labor, 6, 24–27, 36–38, 40, 41, 45, 55, 75–77, 88, 99, 116, 118, 120, 163, 172, 242, 256, 258, 273, 275, 301; in cottage industry, 30, 33, 37; in factory methods, 30, 46, 47, 53, 54, 95, 96, 100, 101, 213, 214
Doolittle, Myrrick, 79, 136, 156, 274, 327; and least squares technique, 78, 81, 93, 159–62, 165, 166, 187
Eckert, J. Presper, 272, 302, 319, 327
Eckert, Wallace J., 192–94, 216, 231, 237, 238, 253, 257, 267, 270, 274, 302, 313, 319, 327; and American Nautical Almanac, 241–43; and Mathematical Tables Project, 246; Orange Book of, 194–95, 231, 274; and security, 194, 248, 249
Econometric Society, 189
Economics. See statistics, economic; social sciences
Edinburgh Mathematics Laboratory, 124, 125, 156, 184
Einstein, Albert, 119, 205, 273
Eisenhart, Luther, 238, 239, 256
electrical engineering, 7, 99, 181, 229, 258, 272
ElectroData Corporation, 311, 312
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), 261, 272, 287, 288, 302, 313, 319, 327; and Mathematical Tables Project, 257, 258, 295, 296
ephemerides, 30, 33, 48, 49, 53, 62, 68–70, 77, 120, 130, 137, 168, 192, 193, 240, 318, 319
errors. See accuracy of computations; comets, precision of prediction for
factories. See division of labor
Feynman, Richard, 275
First World War, 3, 126–34, 138, 139, 142, 145, 146, 151, 152–54, 156, 159, 169, 174, 177, 182, 180, 183, 191, 195, 205, 232, 235, 240, 263
Flamsteed, John, 92
Food Administration. See United States Food Administration
French Revolution. See de Prony, Gaspard Marie Riche; metric system
Froelich, Clara, 170, 171, 179, 216, 221–24, 311, 328
Fry, Thornton, 142, 170, 171, 183, 189, 195, 201, 216, 222, 223, 268, 284, 328; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 253, 280, 283; and Mathematical Tables and other Aids to Computation, 178–81; isograph computing machine of, 222, 223, 226
Fuller, Margaret, 62
Galton Laboratory, 108–10, 112, 116–18, 150, 155–58, 169, 172, 196, 237, 328 (see also Tracts for Computers); in first world war, 125–31, 133, 151, 154 Note: when the cross ref. entry is italicized the See or See also flips to roman type]
Galton, Francis, 103–6, 110, 111, 118, 131, 137, 169, 172, 173. See also statistics, correlation
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 63, 77, 78, 81, 84; Theoria motus corporum coelestium 63, 78
General Electric Corporation, 99, 180, 278; computing division of, 179, 190
George Washington University, 138
Germany, 99, 100, 182, 276; computing offices of, 256, 280–84, 301, 302
Glover, James, 4, 189, 190, 201, 209, 328
Goldstine, Adele, 260, 261, 287, 313, 328
Great Depression, 2, 7, 174, 177, 180, 186, 201, 209, 220, 272, 287, 289. See also Work Projects Administration
Greenwich Observatory. See Royal Greenwich Observatory
Gulliver’s Travels. See Swift, Jonathan
Halley, Edmund, 11–16, 21, 27, 38, 46, 51, 53, 60, 91, 107, 120, 124, 125, 148, 318, 319, 321, 328. See also Halley’s comet
Halley’s comet, 11–16, 20–25, 27, 28, 36, 37, 46, 48, 60, 103, 125, 128, 130, 150, 328; 1682 return, 11, 14, 15, 22, 24; 1758 return, 15, 16, 20–24, 37, 48; 1835 return, 46, 48, 49, 119; 1910 return, 119–22, 123, 179, 182; 1986 return, 318–21; 2061 return, 322. See also comets
Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 312–14, 322
Harvard University, 57–59, 62, 67, 68, 79, 91, 99, 133, 182, 183, 208, 218, 222, 229, 230–32, 254, 266, 267; and Mark I Calculating Machine, 229–32, 272, 275, 277; and National Youth Administration, 229; Observatory, 56, 62, 66, 77, 82–88, 99, 112, 113, 229, 230; Radcliffe College, 83, 103, 189, 190, 208
Herschel, Caroline, 39
H.M.S. Pinafore. See Observatory Pinafore
Hollerith, Herman, 94–96, 145, 146, 288. See International Business Machines; punched card machines
House Un-American Activities Committee, 299, 305–10
Hunter College for Women, 209, 221, 260
Indiana University, 183, 184, 195
Institute for Advanced Study, 205, 217, 245, 266, 285, 292, 295
Institute for Numerical Analysis, 298–306, 309–12; computing office of, 301–4; and political turmoil, 304–10
Institute for the Exact Sciences. See Newcomb, Simon
insurance, 4, 44, 47, 60, 66, 93, 102, 124, 164, 237, 278, 318. See also actuaries
International Business Machines, 164, 166, 188, 190, 192–94, 226, 227, 233, 244, 247, 267, 270, 272, 303, 311; Card-Programmed Calculator, 303, 311; and Columbia University, 190–95, 242; as CTR Company, 146, 159, 163; and Harvard University, 231; Model 701 computer, 311; Model 601 tabulator, 193, 225; System 360 computer, 314, 315. See also Watson, Thomas J.
Iowa State College, 150, 164–66, 187, 188, 194, 198, 225–27, 229, 266, 268, 311; Statistical Computing Laboratory, 166, 169, 187, 188, 194, 199, 221, 225, 303, 328
isograph. See Fry, Thornton
Japan, 180, 237, 256, 276, 278, 285
Jupiter, 14, 15, 20, 23, 48, 59, 121, 192, 321
Kaimowitz, Gittel. See Blanch, Gertrude
labor conflicts, 52, 113, 292, 293, 294. See also computers, human; division of labor
Lalande, Joseph, 16, 18–20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 37, 61, 321, 328
Laputa, mythical kingdom of, 21, 43, 104, 137, 168. See also Swift, Jonathan
Le Verrier, Urban Jean Joseph, 59, 60, 64, 328
least squares, 78, 161, 162, 225, 295, 303, 328; adjustment of surveys by, 78, 81, 93, 160–62, 165; and punched card machines, 162, 165; statistical analysis with, 161–66, 187, 225, 227. See also Doolittle, Myrrick
Lepaute, Nicole-Reine, 16, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 37, 81, 91, 321, 328
linear programming. See mathematical methods
logarithms, 6, 36, 91, 92, 107, 125, 157, 199
Long Range Navigation (LORAN), 249–53, 269, 277, 289, 328
longitude, methods of determining, 35, 50, 65, 73, 74, 77, 104, 159, 253; chronometric method, 27–29, 47, 49, 66; lunar distance method, 27–29, 47, 129
LORAN. See Long Range Navigation
Lovelace, Ada, 44
Lowan, Arnold, 234, 239, 242–53, 258, 287, 298–300, 307, 313, 314, 329; background and education of, 203–6; and John Curtiss, 291–94, 298, 299; and efforts to continue MTP, 245, 247, 251, 254, 255, 289–92,; and promotion of MTP, 216–19, 244; in the Second World War, 246–50, 267–71, 273, 280, 283–85, 294, 295, 296; and security clearance, 248, 249; and start of MTP, 206, 209–12, 214–16; and John von Neumann, 245, 264
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, 50, 329
Manhattan Project, 134, 273–75, 284, 288, 301, 306, 307, 313, 329; and Mathematical Tables Project, 273; T-5 computing group of, 275
Martin, Artemis, 98
Maskelyne, Nevil, 27–33, 35, 37, 40, 41, 46, 47, 51, 57, 62–64, 91, 120, 129, 156, 215, 329
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 60, 62, 152, 178, 179, 217, 244, 249–51, 253, 272, 286
mass production, 7, 91–93, 95, 100–1, 145, 158
mathematical ballistics. See ballistics
mathematical methods: binary arithmetic, 79, 80, 222–24, 227; calculus (see calculus); complex arithmetic, 169, 171, 221–25, 230, 267; differencing, 37, 215; interpolation, 31, 32, 41, 263; least squares (see least squares); linear programming, 295, 296, 303, 304; monte carlo techniques, 304; probability theory, 265; simultaneous equations, 225–27, 230, 268, 295, 303, 304; numerical integration (also called mechanical quadrature and method of small arcs), 121–24, 130, 156; polynomials and roots, 32, 222, 223; trigonometry, 34–38, 40, 41, 50, 73, 136, 258. See also progressive digiting
Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, 178–81, 195–97, 211, 234, 237–39, 243, 246, 256, 257, 329; and Mathematical Tables Project, 210–12, 246; computer conference of, 285–87; Journal of, 257, 261, 286, 294, 299, 311
Mathematical Tables Committee (BAAS), 173, 174, 184, 197, 211, 217, 236, 261, 262
Mathematical Tables Project, 223, 232, 239, 288, 300, 301, 303, 304, 307, 312, 318, 329; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 254, 255, 258, 266, 267; approval of computing plans of, 246; and army and navy, 244, 247; background of computers in, 212, 252; begins operations, 211–12; and Hans Bethe, 218, 219; as Computation Laboratory, 290–97, 314; and computing machinery, 220, 247, 285; D-Day calculations of, 269–71; defense certification of, 246–48; division of labor within, 213, 258; efforts to disband and final days of, 244, 245, 251, 252, 254, 280, 284, 285, 289, 291, 292, 294, 298, 299, 318; error corrections and techniques of, 213–15; and Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 313, 314; handicapped workers at, 243, 276; and Harvard, 231, 232; and Cornelius Lanczos, 273; and linear programming, 295, 296, 299, 304; and LORAN/New York Hydrographic Institute, 250, 252, 256, 269, 277, 285; and Manhattan Project, 273, 274; and move to Washington, 291–99; and MTAC, 246; and NDRC, 254, 247; organization and staffing of, 200–3, 212–13, 242, 250, 253, 255, 257, 290; Planning Committee of, 213, 214, 234, 273, 284; post–Second World War status of, 283, 285, 289; as proxy for ENIAC, 295, 296; reputation of, 215–17, 219, 242, 243, 245–49, 255, 273, 280, 284, 285, 289; and scientific community, 243, 280, 291; and Second World War, 247, 255, 267, 268, 278, 280, 283; security within, 248–50, 253, 284, 285; training computers for, 258, 273; and University of Pennsylvania, 257, 258; and John von Neumann, 205, 264; and war certification, 244–48, 307; work load of, 216, 268–71, 277, 278, 280; and WPA, 201, 203, 210, 215–17, 234, 243, 244, 247, 250, 251, 255, 277. See also Blanch, Gertrude; Lowan, Arnold; National Bureau of Standards; Work Projects Administration mathematics. See mathematical methods; calculus
mechanical quadrature. See mathematical methods
meteorology, 75–77, 105, 111, 112, 124, 168. See also Richardson, Lewis Fry
method of small arcs. See mathematical methods
metric system, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40
Michigan, University of, 2–4, 166, 189, 190, 198, 209, 260, 266, 330
missiles. See ballistics, trajectories
MIT. See Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Mitchell, Maria, 61–63, 68, 71, 81, 82, 84, 91, 99, 329
Mitchell, William, 62, 76, 82, 329
monte carlo techniques. See mathematical methods
moon, motion of, 11, 13, 24, 27–32, 41, 60, 62, 79, 99, 168, 192, 193, 319
Moore School of Electrical Engineering. See Pennsylvania, University of
Moore, Joshua, 55
Morrow, Malcolm, 198–203, 210–12
Morse, Philip, 217, 218, 244–47, 249–51, 253, 255, 291–93, 296, 297, 329; and Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 312–314
Moulton, Forest Ray, 138–42, 147, 151–53, 179, 195, 253, 329
MTAC. See Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
National Academy of Sciences, 75, 133, 177, 201–3, 210, 211, 310. See also National Research Council; Work Projects Administration, 200, 201
National Bureau of Standards, 202, 206, 210, 244, 247, 255, 257, 289, 298, 300, 302–6, 309, 310, 313, 314, 318, 329; applied mathematics laboratories, 290–93. See also Mathematical Tables Project; Briggs, Lyman; Institute for Numerical Analysis
National Defense Research Committee, 240, 255, 266, 276–78, 284, 332; and Mathematical Tables Project, 247, 251, 253, 254, 329
National Research Council, 133, 177–81, 185, 195, 211, 234, 235, 238–40, 256, 329; conflict of with R. C. Archibald, 237–39, 256. See also Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
National Youth Administration, 185, 186, 199, 229, 272, 311, 317, 329
National Observatory. See United States Naval Observatory
Nautical Almanac, American, 56–60, 77, 79, 82, 84, 87, 96, 99, 137, 138, 178, 181, 198, 229, 232, 267, 288; and calculating machines, 69–70, 243, 270, 287, 318; and prime meridian, 65–67; and relations with Congress, 67, 68; staffing computing office of, 61–64, 113–16, 120, 242; and war, 71, 72, 240, 246, 249. See also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L. J.; Davis, Charles Henry; Eckert, Wallace J.; Maskelyne, Nevil; Pierce, Benjamin; Royal Astronomical Society
Nautical Almanac, British, 27–30, 35, 40, 41, 46, 53, 55–57, 65, 66, 143, 179, 186, 192; and calculating machines, 172–74, 193; staffing computing office of, 33, 36, 47–49, 53, 54, 64, 172, 196, 261. See also Babbage, Charles; Comrie, L. J.; Davis, Charles Henry; Eckert, Wallace J.; Maskelyne, Nevil; Pierce, Benjamin; Royal Astronomical Society
Naval Observatory. See United States Naval Observatory
navigation, 6, 27–33, 40, 47, 55–58, 66, 67, 73, 100, 129, 154, 196, 249–53, 261, 277, 289. See also Longitude, Methods of Determining
New Deal, 185, 190, 198, 233, 237, 255, 330
New York Hydrographic Office, 256, 269, 277, 285
Newcomb, Simon, 64, 72, 113–17, 198, 235, 240, 241, 274, 330; and labor troubles, 114; and Institute for Exact Sciences, 115, 116
Newton, Isaac, 5, 6, 13–16, 23, 26, 27, 38, 48, 50, 59, 81, 92, 103, 119, 121, 128, 148, 185, 208, 318, 330
Newton, Isaac (American agriculturalist), 75
New York Hydrographic Project. See Mathematical Tables Project, Long Range Navigation
Neyman, Jerzy, 269–71, 278, 285, 295, 330
numerical integration. See mathematical methods
Observatory Pinafore, 84–88, 157
O’Kane, Blanch (author’s grandmother), 1–4, 8
Pauling, Linus, 270
Pearl, Raymond, 147, 148, 150, 161
Pearson, Karl, 102, 107–12, 115–18, 125–28, 130–33, 147, 156, 158, 165, 168, 169, 172–74, 178, 179, 196, 219, 237, 262, 330; and First World War, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 153, 154; and George Bernard Shaw, 102, 107; and women, 107, 108, 110, 111, 131. See also Tracts for Computers
Peirce, Benjamin, 57–62, 66–69, 71, 74, 78–81, 84, 98, 156, 159, 222, 330; and binary arithmetic, 79, 80
Peirce, Charles Saunders, 74
Pennsylvania, University of, 272, 276, 287, 288, 313; computing office of, 257–61; Moore School of Electrical Engineering Summer Lectures, 288, 311
Persily, Matilda, 220
Pickering, Edward C., 82, 83, 87, 99, 230, 330
planets. See individual planets
political turmoil, scientists and, 304–10
Pontécoulant, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet, comte de, 48, 49, 119–21, 330
prime meridian, 55, 65, 66; American, 50, 65–67, 240; Greenwich, 65–67; New Orleans (proposed), 65, 66; Paris, 65
Princeton University, 136, 208, 253, 256, 301, 313; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 266, 269; enthusiasm at for First World War, 133, 208
programming, computer. See computers, electronic stored programs
progressive digiting, 162, 192, 193
punched card machines, 145, 146, 163, 188, 191–93, 226, 243, 244, 268, 270, 287, 288, 303, 318; adding tabulators, 93–96, 99, 159, 162–66, 168, 226, 283; and Analytical Engine, 44–45; and L. J. Comrie, 172; compared to human computers, 275; limits of for scientific computation, 171, 229, 242; multiplying tabulators, 162, 193, 225, 311; plug boards, 274, 304
Radcliffe College. See Harvard University
Research Board for National Security, 279, 280, 300
Rhodes, Ida, 212, 220, 251, 252, 255, 273, 296, 300, 315
Richardson, Lewis Fry, 142–44, 201, 218, 229, 330
Rockefeller Foundation, 227, 238, 330, 253, 257, 264
Rocket trajectories. See ballistics, trajectories
Royal Astronomical Society, 39, 40, 43, 47–49, 52–54, 173, 329
Royal Greenwich Observatory, 15, 27, 28, 35, 38, 46, 47, 49–57, 62, 65, 66, 113, 120, 121, 172, 321, 328
Royal Nautical Almanac. See Nautical Almanac, British
Royal Society, 13, 42, 43, 75, 106, 107, 173, 331
Safford, Henry, 60
Saturn, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23, 48, 59, 121, 192
Saunders, Rhoda, 74, 82, 85–87, 91, 331
Scheutz, George and Edvard, 69, 70, 331; difference engine of (see difference engine)
Schott, Charles, 74
Scientific Computing Service. See Comrie, L. J.
Second World War, 5, 7, 239, 240, 256–75, 279, 301, 311, 313, 319; calculations for D-Day, 269–71; end of conflict, 276–85, 298; German science from, 280–84
Senior Wrangler. See wranglers
Shakespeare. See Davis, Charles Henry
Shannon, Claude, 261
Shaw, George Bernard, 102, 103, 107; Mrs. Warrens Profession, 102, 103
Siacci, Francesco, 129, 130, 141
Signal Corps. See United States Army
simultaneous equations. See mathematical methods
slide rule, 91–93, 96, 157, 221, 222
Smith, Adam, 6, 15, 26, 27, 33, 36, 40, 41, 53, 331. See also division of labor
Smithsonian Institution, 56, 205; weather project of, 75, 76, 147
Snedecor, George, 165–69, 187, 221, 303, 331
social sciences, 99–101, 112, 116, 163, 190–91, 199
Soviet Union (USSR), 194, 195, 248, 305, 306. See also Cold War
statistics, 4, 7, 94, 97, 98, 100, 103–5, 111, 124, 126, 128, 147, 148, 162, 165, 166, 172, 184, 191–94, 198, 237, 239, 290; agricultural, 75, 146, 148, 161–66, 181, 199, 225; Hog astronomy/hogarythms, 148; analysis of variance/regression in, 161, 187, 188; calculation of, 108, 109; connection to Darwin, 103–7; correlation in, 105–8, 111, 164, 165, 168, 187, 191; economic, 7, 26, 27, 97, 98, 161, 187–89; expansion of into social sciences, 116–18, 190–91, 199. See also least squares; United States Census
statistical laboratories, 183. See also Iowa State College, Biometrics Laboratory; United States Department of Agriculture; Columbia University; Cowles Commission for Economic Research; Davis, H. T.
Steinmetz, Charles, 99
Stibitz, George, 221–24, 227, 229, 231, 233, 237, 258, 271, 272, 276, 277, 288, 331; and complex calculator, 221, 223
Stratford, William Samuel, 48–50, 53, 54, 120; surveying by, 6, 33, 35, 55, 65–67, 71, 73, 77, 100, 136, 271; adjustment of triangulations by, 73, 74, 78, 81, 137, 160–62; map grids of, 244
Swift, Jonathan: Gulliver’s Travels, 21, 22, 43, 104, 148, 168
Tausky, Olga, 262, 263, 281, 301, 302, 331
telephone, 137, 169, 171, 223, 287
Theoria motus corporum coelestium. See Gauss, Carl Frederick
Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, 193–95, 218, 225, 231, 237, 241, 242, 253, 266, 267, 270, 274, 278, 291, 331. See also Columbia University
Thoreau, Henry David, 60
three-body problem. See calculus
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 55, 56, 239
Todd, John, 99, 261–64, 304, 313; and Institute for Numerical Analysis, 301, 302; and John Curtiss, 309; and John von Neumann, 263, 264; and programming, 264; and mission to Germany, 281–84
Tolley, Howard, 159–64, 174, 187, 331
Tracts for Computers, 156–58, 165, 178, 219, 331
Tripos, 50, 102, 104, 107, 111, 331
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 56, 99, 100
Twain, Mark, 123
United Public Workers of America, 292–94
United States Air Force, 289, 298, 310, 312, 316, 317
United States Army, 4, 74, 79, 130, 140, 146, 151, 178, 180, 182, 190, 191, 198, 239, 240, 244, 248, 260, 268, 272, 289, 295, 301; Office of Experimental Ballistics, 134, 140, 145, 151–53, 195, 240; Signal Corps, 76, 77, 134, 268. See meteorology
United States Census, 94–96, 99, 146
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 56, 57, 65, 71–74, 77–79, 81, 84, 93, 96, 98, 136, 137, 159, 160, 187, 229
United States Congress, 65, 67, 70, 138, 199, 292, 305; and science, 56, 57, 67, 75, 299. See also House Un-American Activities Committee
United States Department of Agriculture, 75, 147, 161, 163, 164, 166, 187, 194, 225, 237; Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 161, 163
United States Food Administration, 146–48, 151, 159, 161, 165
United States Naval Observatory, 56, 57, 60, 61, 66, 71, 72, 74, 77, 79, 83, 84, 87, 115, 120, 137, 198, 238, 240, 241, 274, 330
United States Navy, 27, 56, 57, 67, 71–76, 79, 83, 84, 96, 115, 120, 229, 240, 241, 249, 252–54, 271, 272, 277, 285, 289, 290, 298, 300, 310, 313
Uranus, 23, 39, 46, 48, 59, 192
USSR. See Soviet Union
Veblen, Oswald, 134, 147, 152, 153, 159, 178, 182, 190, 195, 201–3, 205, 208, 235, 236, 239, 253, 276, 279, 280, 322, 331; and ballistics, 135–37, 141
von Neumann, John, 217, 245, 279, 287, 291, 295, 296, 299, 304, 331; and Admiralty Computing Service, 263, 264; and Mathematical Tables Project, 205, 217, 245, 291, 292, 294–96, 299; and linear programming, 295, 296, 299, 304
Wallace, Harry C., 149–51, 161
Wallace, Henry A., 149–51, 159, 164–66, 174, 187, 192, 193, 216, 225, 231, 253, 331; and biblical Egyptian famine, 149–51; Correlation and Machine Calculation, 165; and meteorology, 168, 169. See also Swine Commission,
Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau. See Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau
Watson, Thomas J., 146, 233, 242, 270, 274, 314, 331; and Columbia University, 190–92; and Harvard Mark I, 231
Wealth of Nations. See Smith, Adam
Weaver, Warren, 227, 257, 276, 283, 284, 289, 300, 331; and Applied Mathematics Panel, 253–55, 265, 266, 268–73, 276–79, 280; and John Vincent Atanasoff, 227; response of to MTAC Journal, 257
Weldon, Florence Tebb, 106, 107, 147
Weldon, W. F. Raphael, 106–8, 147
Wiener, Norbert, 151, 152, 182, 224, 264, 331
Wilson, Elizabeth Webb, 138–40, 142, 152, 182, 189, 332
Winlock, Anna, 82
Winlock, Joseph, 60, 68–71, 82
Wisconsin, University of, 99, 149, 183, 225, 227, 230
women, 71, 104, 107–9, 126, 131, 147, 148, 207, 252, 267, 303; at Harvard Observatory, 82–84, 86, 87, 113, 230; hiring and work force issues for, 4, 81–84, 87, 101, 103, 110–13, 138, 140, 152, 166, 167, 170, 190, 208, 209, 218, 221, 253, 256, 259, 260, 276; mathematical education for, 3, 4, 19–20, 61–62, 82, 102, 103, 111, 138, 170, 189, 190, 208, 209, 282; referred to as “girls” or “harems,” 83, 221, 262, 276, 283; at University of Pennsylvania, 259, 260, 276; and war, 138–40, 152, 189, 260, 267, 300; and women’s rights issues, 61, 62, 87, 100, 102, 138, 139, 301, 308, 316, 317. See also computers, human, wages of; computers, human, working conditions of; Blanch, Gertrude; Cave-Brown-Cave, Beatrice; Clem, Mary; Froelich, Clara; Goldstine, Adele; Krampe, Charlotte; Lepaute, Nicole-Reine; Lee, Alice; Mitchell, Maria; Persily, Matilda; Rhodes, Ida; Saunders, Rhoda; Stegun, Irene; Tausky, Olga; Wilson, Elizabeth Webb; Weldon, Florence Tebb; Winlock, Anna
Work Projects Administration, 198–201, 203, 205, 210–12, 215–20, 225, 232, 233, 242–48, 250–53, 255, 258, 264, 269, 277, 289, 291, 292, 296, 307, 317, 321, 332; and science, 199; liquidation of, 244, 251, 252, 254. See also Mathematical Tables Project
World War, First. See First World War
World War, Second. See Second World War
World’s Columbian Exposition, 96, 98, 233. See also World’s Congress Auxilliary
World’s Congress Auxiliary, 98–100
World’s Fair: 1867 Paris, 93; 1893 Chicago (see World’s Columbian Exposition); 1904 St. Louis, 115; 1915 San Francisco, 170; 1939 New York, 233, 234
WPA. See Work Projects Administration