Appendix: Recurring Characters, Institutions, and Concepts
THIS BOOK contains a large number of characters, many of whom disappear after their initial introduction and return several chapters later in the narrative. This section is meant to be a guide to the most important recurring people, institutions, and concepts. It gives a brief description of key items; a more complete list of characters is found in the index.
ABERDEEN PROVING GROUND
U.S. Army testing site for artillery, opened in 1918 with Princeton mathematician Oswald Veblen on staff
ABRAMOWITZ, MILTON (1913–1958)
Planning committee member of Mathematical Tables Project, editor of Handbook of Mathematical Functions
ADMIRALTY COMPUTING SERVICE
English computing organization of the Second World War led by John Todd
AIKEN, HOWARD (1900–1973)
Harvard graduate student and designer of MARK I mechanical computing device
AIRY, GEORGE BIDDLE (1801–1892)
English Astronomer Royal, reorganized Greenwich Observatory computers with principles of factory production
ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND D’ (1717–1783)
French mathematician and critic of calculations for first return of Halley’s comet
APPLIED MATHEMATICS PANEL
Division of Office of Scientific Research and Development concerned with mathematical research, led by Warren Weaver and headquartered in New York City
ARCHIBALD, RAYMOND CLAIRE (1875–1955)
Editor of the journal Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
ATANASOFF, JOHN VINCENT (1903–1995)
Iowa State College physics professor, designed small computer to solve simultaneous equations problems
BABBAGE, CHARLES (1791–1871)
British mathematician and designer of computing machine called difference engine
American industrial research laboratory founded in 1925, supported computing groups and developed early electromechanical computer
BENNETT, A. A. (1888–1971)
Brown University mathematician, member of Aberdeen Proving Ground staff in First World War, chair of the Subcommittee on the Bibliography of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation
BIOMETRICS LABORATORY; see GALTON LABORATORY
BLANCH, GERTRUDE (1896–1996)
Mathematical leader of Mathematical Tables Project
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, MATHEMATICAL TABLES COMMITTEE
Committee of scientists who computed tables of higher mathematical functions
BRUNSVIGA
Mechanical calculator that was a favorite of Karl Pearson and the British statistical community
BUREAU DU CADASTRE
French survey organization, led by Gaspard de Prony, that computed decimal trigonometry tables during the French Revolution
BURROUGHS, WILLIAM SEWARD (1855–1898)
Early successful American adding machine manufacturer; machines later adapted as difference engines
BUSH, VANNEVAR (1890–1974)
MIT engineer, directed American scientific effort during Second World War
CAVE-BROWNE-CAVE, FRANCES (1876–1965)
Mathematics professor at Girton College, Cambridge, U.K., did calculations for Karl Pearson
CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS-CLAUDE (1713–1765)
French mathematician, computed perihelion of Halley’s comet at first return in 1758
COAST (AND GEODETIC) SURVEY
First U.S. government scientific organization, maintained staff of computers to do survey and longitude calculations
COLUMBIA ASTRONOMICAL COMPUTING BUREAU; see THOMAS J. WATSON ASTRONOMICAL COMPUTING BUREAU
COMRIE, LESLIE JOHN (1893–1950)
Director of British Nautical Almanac and founder of Scientific Computing Service, key expert on methods of scientific computation
COWLES, ALFRED H. (1891–1984)
Industrialist and financier, founded Cowles Commission for Economic Research
COWLES COMMISSION FOR ECONOMIC RESEARCH
Organization founded in Colorado Springs (now at Yale) that maintained a computing staff to compile and analyze economic data
CROMMELIN, ANDREW CLAUDE DE LA CHEROIS (1865–1939)
English astronomer, computed perihelion of 1910 return of Halley’s comet, developed general means of solving differential equations
CROWELL, PHILLIP (1879–1949)
Astronomer who worked with Crommelin (see above)
DAVIS, CHARLES HENRY (1807–1877)
Officer, U.S. Navy, founder and first director of American Nautical Almanac
DAVIS, HAROLD THAYER (1892–1974)
American mathematician and creator of encyclopedia of mathematical functions, worked with Cowles Commission and Subcommittee on the Bibliography of Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation; no known relation to Charles Henry Davis
DE COLMAR, CHARLES XAVIER THOMAS (1785–1870)
Inventor of first commercially successful adding machine
DE PRONY, GASPARD CLAIR FRANÇOIS MARIE RICHE (1755–1839)
Leader of Bureau du Cadastre computing effort, created decimal trigonometry tables for French Metric Commission
DIFFERENCE ENGINE
Mechanical calculator that could interpolate functions, invented as special device by Charles Babbage but later adapted from commercial machines
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER
Electromechanical machine that could solve differential equations (see below), found at MIT and Aberdeen Proving Ground
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Equations that describe physical motion; they generally express relationships among the position of an object, the direction of its motion, and its speed; can be solved by a Differential Analyzer (see above)
DOOLITTLE, MYRRICK (1830–1913)
Computer for Coast Survey, developed method for solving least squares and simultaneous equation problems
ECKERT, J. PRESPER (1919–1995)
Designer of ENIAC at University of Pennsylvania; no known relation to W. J. Eckert, below.
ECKERT, WALLACE J. (1902–1971)
Leader of punched card computing group at Columbia University and director of U.S. Nautical Almanac.
ENIAC
Electronic computing machine developed at University of Pennsylvania, often identified as precursor of modern computer
Computer at Bell Telephone Laboratories
FRY, THORNTON (1892–1991)
Mathematician at Bell Telephone Laboratories
GALTON LABORATORY
Statistical laboratory of Karl Pearson at University College London, employed substantial computing staff
GLOVER, JAMES W. (1868–1941)
Actuary, mathematician, and educator of female computers at University of Michigan
GOLDSTINE, ADELE (1920–1964)
Senior Computer, University of Pennsylvania
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY
Royal Observatory of England, maintained a staff of human computers for almost 200 years
HALLEY, EDMUND (1656–1742)
English astronomer, friend of Isaac Newton, identified Halley’s comet as a returning comet, recognized that comet orbit calculations were difficult
HALLEY’S COMET (1758, 1835, 1910, 1986)
First major project for human computers because of the difficulties of tracking three or more bodies in space
IOWA STATE STATISTICAL LAB
Statistical laboratory run by George Snedecor that employed large computing staff, associated with Henry Wallace
LALANDE, JOSEPH-JÉRÔME LE FRANÇAIS DE (1732–1807)
French Astronomer Royal who worked on first calculation of Halley’s comet
LANCZOS, CORNELIUS (1893–1974)
Hungarian mathematician who worked with Mathematical Tables Project
LEAST SQUARES
Method of estimating orbits, statistical quantities, and other numbers by minimizing the squared distance between data (such as astronomical observations) and the final solution; important least squares technique developed by Myrrick Doolittle
LEPAUTE, NICOLE-REINE ÉTABLE DE LA BRIÈRE (1723–1788)
French scientist, worked on calculation of first return of Halley’s comet
LE VERRIER, URBAN JEAN JOSEPH (1723–1788)
Discoverer of Neptune
LORAN
Long-range navigation, a form of radio navigation developed by the United States during the Second World War
Director of Mathematical Tables Project
LUCASIAN PROFESSORSHIP
Mathematical professorship at Cambridge University in England, held, at different times, by Newton, Babbage, and Airy
MANHATTAN PROJECT
American atomic bomb effort in the Second World War
MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732–1811)
British Astronomer Royal, founded Nautical Almanac
MATHEMATICAL TABLES AND OTHER AIDS TO COMPUTATION COMMITTEE/JOURNAL
National Research Committee chaired by R. C. Archibald; journal published by the same committee
MATHEMATICAL TABLES COMMITTEE
Not Mathematical Tables Project; see BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
MATHEMATICAL TABLES PROJECT
WPA computing organization in New York City
MITCHELL, MARIA (1818–1889)
Early American computer and astronomer
MITCHELL, WILLIAM (1791–1869)
Amateur scientist and father of Maria Mitchell (see above)
MORSE, PHILIP (1903–1985)
MIT engineer and supporter of Mathematical Tables Project
MOULTON, FOREST RAY (1872–1952)
A leader of First World War ballistics computer effort with Oswald Veblen
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
American government research institute, sponsor of Mathematical Tables Project
NATIONAL DEFENSE RESEARCH COMMITTEE
Second World War committee for organizing scientific research, part of Office of Scientific Research and Development
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
American committee for coordinating research, founded in First World War
NATIONAL YOUTH ADMINISTRATION
New Deal agency for employing high school and college youth, sponsored many small computing organizations
NAUTICAL ALMANAC, AMERICAN
American equivalent of British Nautical Almanac, founded in Cambridge, Mass., and moved to Washington, D.C.
Officially called Royal Nautical Almanac, prepared annual volume of navigation and astronomical tables
NAVAL OBSERVATORY
American National Observatory in Washington, D.C.
NEUMANN, JOHN VON (1903–1957)
American mathematician and key influence in development of modern electronic computer
NEW DEAL
Popular name for President Franklin Roosevelt’s economic relief programs
NEWCOMB, SIMON (1835–1909)
Director of American Nautical Almanac and, for his time, America’s most famous scientist
NEWTON, ISAAC (1642–1727)
An inventor of calculus and a friend of Edmund Halley
NEWTON, ISAAC (1837–1884)
Not to be confused with the above, first director of U.S. Department of Agriculture
NEYMAN, JERZY (1896–1981)
American statistician, worked on bombing problems in Second World War
PEARSON, KARL (1857–1934)
English statistician, founded computing organization and worked on bombing problems in First World War
PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809–1880)
American mathematician, friend of Charles Henry Davis, staff member of Nautical Almanac, director of Coast Survey
PICKERING, EDWARD (1846–1919)
Director, Harvard Observatory, hired large numbers of female computers
PONTÉCOULANT, PHILIPPE GUSTAVE LE DOULCET, COMTE DE (1795–1874)
Computed 1835 and 1910 returns of Halley’s comet
PRINCIPIA
Isaac Newton’s book on planetary motion
RICHARDSON, LEWIS FRY (1881–1953)
English meteorologist, envisioned truly massive computing laobratory
ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION
Philanthropic organization of Rockefeller family, supported mathematical research
ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY
English scientific society organized in 1821 as an alternative to Royal Society (see below); Babbage a member; supported computational work
ROYAL SOCIETY
England’s first scientific society
SAUNDERS, RHODA (DATES UNKNOWN)
Computer at Harvard Observatory
SCHEUTZ, EDVARD (1821–1888) AND GEORGE (1785–1873)
Inventors of a difference engine following Babbage’s ideas
SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
Scottish philosopher and economist
SNEDECOR, GEORGE (1881–1974)
Iowa statistician, student of George Glover
STIBITZ, GEORGE (1904–1995)
Staff member of Bell Telephone Laboratories, inventor of machine to do complex arithmetic with telephone relays
TAUSSKY-TODD, OLGA (1906–1995)
English mathematician and member of National Bureau of Standards staff
THOMAS J. WATSON ASTRONOMICAL COMPUTING BUREAU
Early punched card computing bureau at Columbia University
TOLLEY, HOWARD (1889–1958)
Mathematician and computer at U.S. Department of Agriculture
TRACTS FOR COMPUTERS
Computing pamphlets published by Karl Pearson
TRIPOS
Mathematical exams at Cambridge University in England; top students are known as First Wrangler, Second Wrangler, and so on
VEBLEN, OSWALD (1880–1960)
American mathematician, nephew of economist Thorstein Veblen, leader of American computing effort in First World War, and member of Applied Mathematics Panel during Second World War
WALLACE, HENRY A. (1888–1965)
American secretary of agriculture, vice president, and amateur mathematician, associated with computing groups at Iowa State College and U.S. Department of Agriculture
WATSON, THOMAS J., SR. (1874–1956)
First president of IBM
WEAVER, WARREN (1898–1978)
University of Wisconsin mathematician, chair of Applied Mathematics Panel in Second World War, scientific program director for Rockefeller Foundation
MIT mathematician, member of First World War ballistics computing effort
WILKS, SAMUEL (1906–1964)
Statistician at Institute for Advanced Study, member of Applied Mathematics Panel
WILSON, ELIZABETH WEBB (1896–1980)
Ballistics computer, First World War
WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION (WPA) (1935–1943)
American economic relief program during Great Depression, organized and financed Mathematical Tables Project
YOWELL, EVERETT
Name of two computers, one for the U.S. Naval Observatory and the second with the Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau