CHAPTER 2

The Latino Legacy in the United States

SITTING IN MY SECOND-GRADE classroom I distinctly remember learning about the “discovery” of America and chorusing with my classmates, “In fourteen hundred and ninety-two Columbus sailed the ocean blue.” Next we learned that in 1607 the first British colony was established at Jamestown, Virginia. None of us thought to ask, “What happened in the intervening 115 years? Did the earth stand still?”

In fact, the Spanish conquistadores were trudging the North and South American continents from the tip of Alaska to Argentina and from the Florida Keys to the Hudson River. Saint Augustine, Florida, was founded in 1565, forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. What an inconvenient truth! Our historical selection process discarded these facts.¹

European civilization was first introduced to this hemisphere by the Spanish and then advanced by their mixed-race progeny, who are today’s Hispanics. They established the bases for agriculture, commerce and trading, mining, and ranching that would eventually drive the engine of the US economy. The Spanish settlers in 1600 introduced the plow and the ox to the native Indians, as well as the first European-bred livestock. California, Texas, and Florida continue to be among the largest producers of fruit and vegetables in the world today. Hispanics were los vaqueros—the original cowboys—and as late as the 1800s were prominent on the open range.

Many institutions that have become identified as “American”—schools, universities, libraries, and state, county, and municipal court systems—were first introduced to North America by the Spanish. The earliest schools in what would become the continental United States were started in 1600 in Florida, Georgia, and New Mexico.² The building of the first European-style towns, the first ports for commerce, the initial trade roads, and the original irrigation systems can be traced to the Spanish and their mixed offspring.

Spanish was the first European language spoken in this hemisphere, the primary language in the Hispanic South and Southwest, which is today almost half of the continental United States. The earliest recording of the settlements in Florida was written by Juan Ponce de León in español. The written travel diaries of the Spanish expeditions laid the foundation for colonial governance, commercial exploration, and legal precedence and documented the official story of Hispanic life in these lands.

The war with México in 1848 and the annexation of the Southwest territories shaped the second phase of Hispanic history in the United States. Leadership as social activism is grounded in this tale of conquest, land confiscation, and colonization. Many displaced Hispanics became field laborers or immigrated to the cities as factory workers during industrialization. This economic upheaval resulted in Latinos playing a pivotal role in the evolution of the US labor movement.

As early as 1883 Juan Gómez led cowboys in a strike in the Texas Panhandle. Soon to follow were tobacco worker strikes in New York City; Tampa, Florida; and Puerto Rico. In the early twentieth century, Mexican Americans joined with Japanese farm workers to win the first strike against the California agricultural industry.³ The farm labor movement in the 1960s persisted with the work of César Chávez and Dolores Huerta, who organized the largest union of agricultural workers, creating national boycotts and legislative action in California.

This history paved a tradition of activist-oriented leadership with community organizing at its core. Latino leaders became a voice for people who lived in the margins. This continues today, since 70 percent of Hispanics belong to the working class.⁴

Powerful political and social forces justified the acquisition of the Southwest and set the stage for cultural dominance, exclusion, and a society where racism and discrimination would remain intact for more than four hundred years. Instead of embracing its culturally rich history, territorial United States went from a land that was basically bicultural or multicultural (if we include American Indians, the French territories, and the Louisiana Purchase) to a nation that constructed “American” history to be White, Anglo-Saxon, and Protestant. Accordingly, the first chapter of American history began when the Pilgrims made their long arduous journey to Plymouth Rock. One of the most powerful forces that sanctified this historical whitewashing was the belief in Manifest Destiny.

Manifest Destiny

THE CONCEPT OF MANIFEST DESTINY in the nineteenth century proposed that the United States should extend democracy to coveted parts of the hemisphere. It was based on three rationales: the virtue of the Protestant ethic and the Anglo-Saxon people; the superiority of their institutions; and the God-given mission to redeem the world and remake it in the image of the United States. Manifest Destiny was further supported by the belief that American Indians, Mexicans, and other people of color were incapable of self-rule and would therefore benefit from being under the US mantle.⁵ Manifest Destiny rationalized the quest for expansion, land, wealth acquisition, and the domination of other races.

Like a historical rupture Manifest Destiny shaped nineteenth-century history and sanctioned the US acquisition of former Spanish and Mexican lands. The most coveted were the Mexican territories, including Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, Nevada, and Utah. In one fell swoop Hispanics became de facto minorities in their own land. Bolstered by this victory, the United States expanded its intervention into Central and South America with the war with Spain in 1898. Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were added to the US cache, consolidating the United States as a world empire and fortifying its belief in Anglo-Saxon cultural superiority.⁶

Manifest Destiny also exported Black slavery into the Southwest. One of the major pushes by the southern states was for the annexation of Texas, then part of México. When settlers from the United States began arriving, they initially accepted Mexican authority. The problema was that slavery was illegal in México, and the settlers from the southern states had brought slaves with them. That the goal was to annex Texas to the United States as a slave state was understood from the start. Texas joined the Confederacy at the outbreak of the Civil War. Former Mexican inhabitants would soon join Black slaves in being subjugated by the newly arrived White settlers and ranchers.

The events that led to Texas becoming a state are an interesting machination of Manifest Destiny. Most Americans know the emotional battle cry “Remember the Alamo!” Depending on what side of the Tex-Mex border you were on and your position on the United States’ right to occupy foreign land, this was either a Mexican victory or a Texas massacre. In 1893 the Alamo was a mission residing on Mexican land. Several months previously the Americans had driven the Mexican army out of Texas. The battle of the Alamo was the Mexican army returning to defend its land. They reconquered the old Spanish mission in a bloody battle where Davy Crockett and Sam Houston died.⁷

“Remember the Alamo!” became a raison d’être for annexing the Texas territories. Mexican Hispanics became colonized people in their own land, with the Texas Rangers as an arm of domination. Today the Alamo is the most popular tourist site in Texas and was designated an official state shrine by the Texas legislature in the twentieth century.⁸ It may be a grievous sin to recognize (or even mention) the irony of this historical Texas two-step, but the fact remains that White colonists invaded Mexican territory and as a result Black slavery was safely secured in Texas.

Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Americans Indians, as well. Continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation and annexation of Indian land. Indians were encouraged to sell their vast tribal lands and become “civilized.” This meant abandoning hunting and their nomadic lifestyle, becoming farmers, and reorganizing their society around the family rather than the clan or tribe. Lands were acquired by treaty and sale from Indian nations, usually under questionable circumstances—including a lack of voluntary and knowing consent by the native signers. Advocates of “civilization programs” believed settling native tribes would greatly reduce the amount of land needed by the Indians, making more available for homesteading by White settlers.⁹

One of the most distasteful tenets of Manifest Destiny was the proliferation of the idea of the “white man’s burden.” Popularized in an 1899 poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling, colonization or slavery was said to benefit nonwhite ethnic and racial groups. Indeed a noble enterprise! Whites would have to bear the yoke of educating and civilizing these lesser groups until they could evolve enough to adopt Western ways.¹⁰

Manifest Destiny established the foundation for many of the discriminatory practices that created an unequal society. The history of people of color would be rewritten from a White point of view, and segregation and racism would spread their ugly hand across the United States.

Latino Destino

MANY YOUNG PEOPLE TODAY would be taken aback at a nation touting its superiority and using this as a rationale for expansion, slavery, and the acquisition of land. Understanding how Manifest Destiny shaped our past emphasizes the importance of knowing history. History, it is said, repeats itself—unless we learn from the past. But how is this possible if the past is whitewashed, ignored, rewritten, or erased? Learning from negative historical events—understanding the toil and trouble that resulted—can be the impetus for finding new pathways.

More than a hundred years after Manifest Destiny, a different kind of American future began to emerge as the civil rights movement took hold. Martin Luther King Jr., who gave voice and power to this movement, believed that America had a different kind of destiny—to fulfill its founding values and to unfold a society that established equality and domestic tranquillity for all. King also believed that African Americans who had held on to their spiritual values were destined to “save the soul of our nation.”¹¹ America, at the time a segregated society, would keep its promise: embrace the common good, equality, and justice, and thus fulfill its true destiny.

King’s vision and the civil rights movement tore apart the seams of White supremacy inherent in Manifest Destiny. People of color uncovered their history, embraced their identity and power, and realized their immense contributions. The United States took great leaps toward becoming an equitable and inclusive society where all people could realize their potential.

In the twenty-first century another force of destiny is emerging that will further the civil rights movement and transform our country into a mosaic nation. By 2050, Hispanics will make up at least one-quarter of the population.¹² Latino destino will encompass a demographic and cultural revolution that will alter America’s complexion from white to mocha.

As noted, Latinos are racial and cultural hybrids. In the plant and animal kingdom, hybrids have increased vigor and other exceptional qualities, including improved physical capacity, greater stamina, and higher yield capacity. Hybrid vigor is apparent in the strong Latino workforce, prolific population growth, and physical beauty. Latino destino is to infuse hybrid vigor into the American spirit—to stir salsa into the American melting pot. Latinos are living proof that being a genetic hybrid, embracing diversity, and reveling in a multicultural mélange enriches and enlivens the human experience.

Hispanic historical roots are older than the founding of our nation. Five hundred years have passed since Columbus first docked the Santa María in Hispaniola. But now Latinos are ready to be a dominant influence in shaping our multicultural nation. It is time to recognize that the time for Latino destino is now! ¡Ahora!

The Latino Explosion

THE LATINIZATION OF AMERICA is changing the way people feel, think, eat, dance, and vote. Latino culture, customs, and values are being adopted by mainstream society.¹³ This process is driven by global connections, language, economic viability, purchasing power, small-business expansion, demographic growth, and political clout. Let’s examine these more closely.

In this global age, Latinos are a portal to our world village, connected by language, culture, and kinship to twenty-six countries. Latino cultural roots can be found in Europe, throughout Spain, Portugal, Italy, and even Romania. In the East, an incredibly beautiful people in the Philippines mirror their mixed Spanish and Asian heritage. Even on the African continent Spanish remains the official language of Equatorial Guinea (formerly Spanish Guinea).¹⁴

Latinos are also an integrating cultural force in the Western Hemisphere, the bridge linking North, South, and Central America. This connection should not be underestimated. Our economic future is tied to Latin America. US exports to Central and South America grew 86 percent between 2004 and 2009 and are on track to more than double during the next five years.¹⁵ Latinos are the nexus between countries in the entire Western Hemisphere and the weft upon which our new global culture will be woven.

A recent article in USA Today asked: ¿Entiende Ud. español? If your answer to “Do you understand Spanish?” is no, get ready to be left behind.¹⁶ Call your banks, telephone companies, public service companies, and government institutions, and you will hear “Si quieres hablar español—oprima el número.” Many nations understand that speaking multiple languages is a coveted asset in our world community. The futuristic Chileans, for instance, initiated “English Opens Doors” in 2004, a program that was aimed at creating a bilingual country in just a generation.¹⁷

Fortunately, the United States is quickly becoming a bilingual nation and just passed Spain as the country with the second-highest number of Spanish speakers.¹⁸ Almost 80 percent of US Latinos speak some español at home.¹⁹ Español is the second-most-spoken language in the world. While more people speak Chinese, it is mostly spoken in China.²⁰ The difference is that español is the primary language in twenty-two countries. It is the lengua of the world!

And talk about dinero! Hispanic purchasing power in the United States is more than $1 trillion annually and growing at a rate three times that of the national average.²¹ The World Bank and International Monetary Fund compared the 2010 gross domestic product of nations around the world and found that if Hispanic America were a separate economy, it would rank among the top twelve GDPs.²² The Latino economy is growing by leaps and bounds. Latinos have the fastest-growing small-businesses sector, which grew 44 percent from 2001 to 2007.²³ Latino-owned businesses are expected to increase their total revenue contribution to the economy by 8 percent annually over the decade from 2005 to 2015.²⁴

In the 2012 presidential election, Latinos forged a new political landscape. As the fastest-growing segment of the electorate, Latino voters increased from 8 percent in 2004 to 10 percent.²⁵ It is not just that more Latinos are voting. It’s where they vote. In the oh-so-rich electoral-vote state of California, Latinos cast 67 percent of their vote for President Obama. Three of the battleground states with significant Latino populations—Colorado, Nevada, and New Mexico—reported that the Hispanic percentage of the electorate basically determined the outcome of the election. In the Sunshine State of Florida, President Obama’s Hispanic support accounted for 58 percent of the electorate, while he won the state by only 0.6 percent.²⁶

Leveraging their growing numbers, Latinos are quickly gaining clout as elected officials and experienced a 53 percent increase from 1996 to 2010. At the highest level of office the gains in federal and state legislatures were 41 percent. Latinas are ahead of the pack and jumped a phenomenal 74 percent in the same period. Geographic influence is also spreading. In 1996 Latinos were elected in only thirty-four states, but by 2010 Latinos held elected office in forty-three states, including Alaska, Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and South Carolina.²⁷ These gains indicate that Latino and non-Latino voters understand the rich perspectives and experiences that diverse voices bring to our political system.

¡Sí, es la hora! For Latino leaders this is the defining moment. This is our time in history—Latinos are at the crossroads of power. Latino destino is calling!

A Latino Cultural Infusion

WHILE THESE FACTS SUPPORT the growing Latino influence in America, the real caramba is in the enrichment the Latino way of life offers. Mexican food is now America’s chosen ethnic cuisine. Tortillas are better sellers than bread.²⁸ Tortillas can be wrapped, eaten as burritos, made into tacos, fried for chimichangas or flautas, or broken up for chips. Talk about Latino diversity and versatility!

In the morning Americans wake up and smell the coffee—a favorite Latino tradition. At night they might enjoy America’s favorite mixed drink—a margarita—with a little salsa and chips. For almost twenty years, salsa has been our favorite condiment, having passed the more homogenized ketchup in the early nineties.²⁹ And salsa has almost no calories—what a cultural bonanza! Today people eat more nachos than hot dogs at baseball games, and one-third of players are Hispanic.³⁰

Latinos are kinetic people and love to dance! All over America people are joining the salsa dance craze. They are swaying to a rhumba, cumbia, meringue, or cha-cha-cha. For those who like a slower beat, there are the polka-sounding rancheros and the country sway of a bachata. Latino diversity is evident, even on the dance floor.

Latino music is blasting the air waves. Artists reflect the vast assortment of the international Latino world. Colombian-born Shakira combines her Middle Eastern ancestry with her Hispanic roots. The hot, hot rhythm of Marc Anthony was born in Puerto Rico. Santana’s fusion salsa mixes Mexican, African drums, and rock. Celia Cruz, considered the queen of salsa, was as Cuban as the maracas. Singer-songwriter Juan Luis Guerra is from the Dominican Republic, while crooner Julio Iglesias comes from Spain. These singers are transnational, and their music blasts out from Buenos Aires to Barcelona to New York City in español and inglés.

When people turn on the television, they are beginning to see Latino faces. George Lopez has been called the funniest man in America. Even American families are being Latinized. Think of the beautiful and voluptuous Sofía Vergara as Gloria Delgado-Pritchett on Modern Family. The international Latino connection is apparent in the film industry, as well. Spanish movie stars like Penélope Cruz and Javier Bardem have won Oscars.

The infusion of Latinos into music, entertainment, and food is the tip of the cultural iceberg—the easiest way for people to enjoy and to integrate Latinismo into their life. Rest assured that this blending of US and Latino cuisine has just begun to enrich our country’s palate. More good times are ahead as we go full steam ahead into the Latino-flavored multicultural century.

¡Ándale!—Moving Forward

UNDERSTANDING THE COMPLEX ANTECEDENTS that shaped the Latino experience prepares us to appreciate its culture and unique leadership forms. The next section looks at the ways Latinos prepare for leadership and overviews three concepts: personalismo, conciencia, and destino.

Personalismo is the inner work leaders must do to become the kind of person that people will follow; it places high value on the good character, reputation, and contributions of the leader. Conciencia is conscious awareness: the mechanism by which a leader stays consistent and connected to her inner self, personal motivation, and culture. Destino, the third aspect of leadership preparation, speaks to an even deeper understanding of one’s unique calling or life’s work.

I use these concepts to give substance and structure to how Latinos prepare for leadership. As the Latino culture relies on oral tradition, and is one where knowledge is gained through experience, a methodology for personal leadership development has not yet been framed. I am hopeful that these concepts can serve as guideposts for young Latinos and others who aspire to lead.