CHAPTER THREE

SOMETIMES I FEEL LIKE A MOTHERLESS CHILD

How Confronting Cultural Differences Results in a Multicultural Mind

The phrase “sometimes I feel like a motherless child,” from the traditional African American spiritual, reflects the search for a sense of place and of self by the slaves who were transported from their African homeland. The song expresses the pain and despair of this longing. The questions Who am I? and Where do I belong? are central to understanding multicultural persons. How individuals come to experience another culture is perhaps less important than the act of confronting another culture on an existential level. Confronting cultural differences is critical to developing a multicultural mind.

As noted in chapter 2, some individuals will have acculturated as a result of migration. Others will have grown up in a multicultural family where they learned to identify with more than one culture. Still others will experience one culture in part of their lives (e.g., at work or school) and another culture in a different part of their lives (e.g., at home). Individuals who spend a significant part of their childhood growing up in one or more foreign cultures (often as the sons or daughters of foreign service employees, missionaries, or expatriates) are such a well-known example of multiculturals that they have been named third culture kids (TCKs).

The key to developing a multicultural mind is the experience of dealing with the different values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about appropriate behavior that are contained in their multiple cultures. As a result of this exposure, multicultural individuals must consciously consider who they are, often on a regular basis. The experience of author Malcolm Gladwell (The Tipping Point, Blink, Outliers) is not uncommon. Gladwell was born to an English father and Jamaican mother and recalls an incident at a high school track meet, when a West Indian team member observing him curiously asked, “What are you?” He remembers being overwhelmed by the word what, as it signified to him that it set him apart from blacks as well as whites. He says, “My mother never had to think about whether she was Black. She was. I have to think about it, and turn the issue over in my mind, and gaze in the mirror and wonder, as I was so memorably asked, what am I.”¹

All of us think of ourselves as physically distinct. This is our outer self that is visible to others. However, we also have an inner or private self that consists of thoughts and feelings that cannot be known by others.² This self-identity can consist of personality traits such as competence, attractiveness, and conscientiousness, but it is also shaped by personal experiences. Our concept of self is detailed and complex, as we have a great deal of experience with ourselves. While some aspects of the self-identity are probably a universal aspect of being human, others are specific to different cultures. For example, people in Western cultures are typically expected to think and act as autonomous individuals with unique attributes. Their notion of self is independent of others. In contrast, people in many Asian cultures think of themselves as less differentiated and more connected to a particular group of people. Their sense of self is interdependent with others. For example, the word for self in Japanese, jinbun, refers to one’s share of the life space.³

Adopting a particular self-identity is not simply a matter of choice that is easily changed, but it is deeply programmed. Recent brain-imaging research shows that particular sections of the brain are activated differently by some tasks and social situations depending on whether the person has been brought up in a culture that supports an independent or interdependent self-concept.⁴ Our concept of who we are, our self-identity, can have a powerful influence on our behavior. Consider the following experiment:

Participants were asked the probability that they would engage in the following behaviors with members of the following groups: family, friends, coworkers, neighbors, and fellow countrymen.

Suppose you disagreed with many of the members of one of the groups mentioned above about something very important. What are the chances you would confront them and bring the disagreement out in the open?

Suppose you and your spouse or your children are having a problem that is quite embarrassing (e.g., sexual difficulties or heavy drinking). What are the chances you would inform members of the groups mentioned above?

Suppose you notice that many members of the groups mentioned above have a lifestyle that is unhealthy (they smoke, drink, and do other things in excess; they do not exercise enough). What are the chances you would do something about it?

Suppose a member of one of the groups mentioned above got seriously sick, requiring someone to spend a lot of time (40 hours per week) with him or her. What are the chances you would do it?

Suppose a member of one of the groups mentioned above asked you for a loan (about a week’s wages). Assume that you have that much in the bank. What are the chances you would lend the money?⁵

Participants with an interdependent sense of self were much more likely (about 80 percent probability) to engage in the behavior than those with an independent self-concept (about 50 percent probability).

Path to a Multicultural Mind

We once thought that individuals had to give up their existing self-identity in order to take on a new one. We now know that this is not true. People can hold multiple versions of their self-identity that have formed because of their exposure to different cultures. These identities can be either ascribed (involuntary, for example as a result of being raised by culturally different parents) or acquired (chosen, for example as a result of migrating to a different culture). In both cases, however, the path from being exposed to a different culture and developing a multicultural mind is the same. It involves knowledge of another culture, identification with that culture, internalization of the values and attitudes of the culture, and a conscious awareness of their multiple cultural identities.⁶

Cultural Knowledge. Knowledge of another culture is a prerequisite to identifying with it: you can’t identify with a culture without knowing about it. For those who grew up in a single culture, knowledge can be gained in numerous ways, including from books, films, television, and casual contact with other cultures. However, this explicit and superficial knowledge does not provide a basis for a multicultural mind. For westerners, going to a Chinese restaurant is certainly an experience with another culture; however, it provides little insight into Chinese culture. What is needed is a deep involvement with another culture in order to understand its values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about appropriate behavior. By gaining this type of knowledge, individuals can map themselves onto the terrain of the other culture, and their knowledge of the other culture is developed sequentially. For individuals who grew up in multiple cultures, such as TCKs, their knowledge of multiple cultures was gained automatically. They had no choice in the matter.

Cultural Identification. The social part of our identity comes from the groups to which we belong. For example, I might identify with my profession or with my classmates at the school I attended, or any other group of people. We identify with these groups because it makes us feel good to do so or because we are seen as members of the group by ourselves or others. If your skin is a particular shade or you speak with an identifiable accent, others may categorize you as a member of the group to which that characteristic belongs, whether you like it or not. However, you may not necessarily see yourself as a member of that group.

I never asked to be white. I am not literally white. That is, I do not have white skin or white ancestors. I have yellow skin and yellow ancestors, hundreds of generations of them. But like so many other Asian Americans of the second generation, I find myself now the bearer of a strange new status; white, by acclamation. Thus it is that I have been described as an “honorary white,” by other whites, and as a “banana,” by other Asians. Both the honorific and the epithet take as a given this idea: to the extent that I have moved from the periphery and toward the center of American life, I have become white inside. Some are born white, others achieve whiteness, still others have whiteness thrust upon them. (Eric Liu, The Accidental Asian⁷)

One important social group that influences the development of our identity is our cultural group. We all need to understand where we fit in relationship to other people in society. Our collective experience with our cultural group is one way we do that. The knowledge that we belong to a cultural group combined with the value and emotion associated with that membership is an important element of who we are. The extent to which we identify with our cultural group depends in part on how positive we feel about being a member of that group.⁸ We all want to feel good about who we are, and identifying with high-status or prestigious groups is one way we do that. Those with exposure to multiple cultures may not identify equally with each culture and may manage their multiculturalism differently.

Cultural Internalization. Identification with multiple cultures has an effect on our attitudes and behavior only if the values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions associated with that culture are internalized.⁹ Just because I see myself as a member of a particular group does not mean that my attitudes and behavior are guided by the norms of that group. As a fan, I might identify with my favorite sports team and be disappointed when they lose. I might even say “we” in reference to the team. However, that does not mean that my behavior reflects the values of the team or necessarily contributes to their goal of winning. In contrast, my internalization of the values of my cultural group is an important motivator. For example, if I have internalized the cultural value that people should work hard, it will motivate me to be a hard worker, and I will be more likely to work hard. Or if I have internalized the belief that time is a valuable commodity and should not be wasted, I am more likely to be punctual and to become irritated when others are late. For those who have internalized multiple cultures, which culture influences their attitudes and behavior depends on the situation.

Recent research shows that multiculturals can move between their multiple cultural identities depending on the situation. In an example of this research, Hong Kong and Chinese American multiculturals, who possess both East Asian and Western cultural meaning systems, were exposed to either American cultural cues (pictures of the American flag, Superman, Marilyn Monroe, the US Capitol) or Chinese cultural cues (pictures of a Chinese dragon, Stone Monkey, a Peking opera singer, and the Great Wall).¹⁰ The participants were then asked to interpret a photo showing a single fish swimming in front of a group of fish. Those who had been exposed to the American cultural cues were likely to say that the one fish was being influenced by some internal characteristic (independence, personal objective, or leadership), while those exposed to the Chinese cultural cues attributed the fish’s behavior to being influenced by the group (being chased, teased, or pressured by others). The reasons given for the fish’s behavior were consistent with which cultural meaning system was triggered by the cultural cues (independence for the American cues and interdependence for the Chinese cues). So depending on the situation, the attitudes and behavior of multiculturals can be influenced by either, or any, of their internalized cultural meaning systems.¹¹ This research will come as no surprise to multiculturals who have experienced this phenomenon.

Cultural Awareness and the Multicultural Mind. Individuals may have more than one culturally based meaning system and switch between cultures based on the situation, but do this automatically without conscious thought as shown in the preceding example. The final stage in the development of a multicultural mind is the conscious consideration of the multiple meaning systems that people have in their minds and resolving the differences between them. It is the act of confronting and resolving the potentially different values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about appropriate behavior that results in mental development.¹² What happens is that the internalization of two or more cultures creates the opportunity for conflict between the norms and values of the two (or more) different cultures. In order to resolve these conflicts, people must become consciously aware of them; this allows them to consider the merits of the alternative perspectives and form reasonable trade-offs among them. The increased effort required to resolve these cultural conflicts results in a more complex way of thinking (called cognitive complexity). As described in chapter 2, cultural meaning systems are deeply embedded, and resolving differences requires considerable mental activity, which results in these much more complex thinking patterns. This is how the multicultural mind is formed.

Types of Cultural Integration

Just because someone has been exposed to multiple cultures does not mean he or she will develop a multicultural mind. Unfortunately, it’s not as simple as that. It depends on how individuals respond to this exposure. While there is an infinite range of possible responses, they can be classified into four basic types depending on their stage on the path to a multicultural mind.¹³ These types are cosmopolitans, sympathizers, chameleons, and multiculturals.

Cosmopolitans. Through their exposure to multiple cultures some individuals gain significant knowledge and a sophisticated understanding of other cultures. However, despite having a deep understanding of another culture, these people maintain their cultural independence by identifying with and internalizing only one culture. They may know a lot about other cultures, but their attitudes and behavior are driven by a single cultural meaning system.

Sympathizers. A second type of cultural integration is represented by those individuals who identify with more than one culture but have not internalized the values, attitudes, and behavioral assumptions of a second culture. These individuals may have a psychological attachment to more than one culture and perhaps even think of themselves as having membership in multiple cultures. However, like cosmopolitans, their behavior is guided by a single cultural meaning system. For example, individuals who have lived much of their adult lives in a country other than that of their birth, and may even have taken out citizenship in the new country, can identify with their adopted country, but still not have internalized its values.

Chameleons. People with knowledge of another culture and the ability to mimic the associated behavioral norms can be called cultural chameleons. Just because someone is able to adopt the behavior of more than one culture does not mean that they identify with that culture, or that they have internalized its values. For example, the ability to speak a foreign language does not necessarily reflect an identification with or commitment to the values of a second culture. Talented mimics may give a convincing impression that they belong to a cultural group without any psychological attachment or commitment to that group.

Multiculturals. Truly multicultural individuals have knowledge of, identify with, have internalized and consciously consider the multiple meaning systems that they have in their minds. They are actively involved in resolving the differences between these different cultures. As discussed in the next chapter, they may manage these conflicting identities in various ways. However, the act of confronting and resolving their multiple identities results in a level of mental development not shared by those who have not reached this level of integration. This active and conscious consideration of their multiple selves is what gives these individuals a multicultural mind.¹⁴

Multicultural Experience and the Multicultural Mind

As noted in chapter 1, not all individuals who have multicultural experience develop a multicultural mind. Multicultural experience provides the opportunity for individuals to become multicultural. However, all multicultural experiences are not the same, and individuals respond differently to these experiences based on how different the cultures are and because of a host of individual differences, including, importantly, their age.

The development of a multicultural mind by integrating two (or more) cultural meaning systems depends in part on the extent to which the cultures involved are different. If the two cultures are similar to each other and individuals can function effectively using one cultural identity, they are not likely to be motivated to expend the mental effort to resolve minor discrepancies. If the cultures are extremely different, integrative solutions may be just too hard to figure out, and individuals will resort to alternatives to integration such as evasion, procrastination, or rigid coping responses.¹⁵ Therefore, the ideal context in which to develop a multicultural mind is exposure to a culture that is different enough to be challenging yet not so different as to be overwhelming. Of course, individuals can develop a multicultural mind in challenging contexts, but the effort required to do so may be very large indeed.

An important difference in how individuals respond to the challenges of multiple cultures is their age when they are exposed to a new cultural context. We know from developmental psychology that it is during adolescence (11–16 years of age) when youth are struggling with who they want to be and how they wish to be perceived by others.¹⁶ This is the prime time for young people to explore their cultural heritage and identity, to ask questions about their cultural ancestry, and to try to understand what it means to be part of their culture. They may also question choices made by previous generations. For example, first-generation immigrants and former slaves have often concealed their culture and tried to blend in to a dominant culture. However, as later generations consider their cultural identity, they may reclaim their cultural heritage and become active in cultural activities, even resurrecting abandoned cultural symbols. An example is the black is beautiful movement in the United States, which began with a fashion event in 1962 and was originally subtitled “The Original African Coiffure and Fashion Extravaganza Designed to Restore our Racial Pride and Standards.”¹⁷

If exposure to other cultures occurs before individuals resolve their sense of self-identity, the development of their sense of self is influenced by more than one cultural context. This is common in third culture kids (TCKs) like Tim in the following story:

Born in New York City to a pianist and an international development official for the US government, Tim spent most of his childhood traveling to foreign countries. He spent time in Zimbabwe, India, and Thailand. His interest in amateur photography during high school at the International School of Bangkok took him to Cambodia. He graduated from Dartmouth College and earned a master’s degree from Johns Hopkins University. He worked as a consultant for Kissinger and Associates, then the International Affairs division of the Treasury Department as an assistant financial attaché for the US Embassy in Tokyo and then as under secretary of international affairs. In 2001 he moved to the International Monetary Fund, and in 2003 he became the president and chief executive officer of the New York Federal Reserve Bank and served as the vice chairman and permanent member of the Federal Open Market Committee, the group responsible for formulating US monetary policy. On November 25, 2008, Timothy Franz Geithner accepted president-elect Barack Obama’s nomination to serve as the 75th secretary of the treasury, where he would play a key role in the management of the financial crisis that began that year.

Third culture kids are unique in that they move between cultures before they have had the opportunity to fully develop their personal and cultural identity.¹⁸ While they have developed the expanded worldview, cross-cultural enrichment, and creativity associated with a multicultural mind,¹⁹ not all TCKs turn out to be as apparently well adjusted as Tim Geithner. These multiculturals can also experience confusion with regard to their values, have difficulty adjusting to adult life, and have a sense of cultural homelessness. The various ways in which individuals manage their multiple identities is the subject of the next chapter.

Summary

People become exposed to other cultures through migration, growing up in a multicultural family or foreign country, and at work or school. As a result of this exposure, they have the opportunity of developing a multicultural sense of themselves, their self-identity, and a multicultural mind. The path from exposure to different cultures to becoming multicultural involves acquiring knowledge of the values, attitudes, and behavioral assumptions of another culture. More important, it involves making this knowledge a part of oneself by identifying with the culture and internalizing its beliefs. Individuals who consciously consider the similarities and differences among their multiple meaning systems, and work to integrate them, develop more complex ways of thinking—a component of a multicultural mind. Individuals differ in how they respond to multicultural experience, especially with regard to their age at the time of second culture exposure. The characteristics of the different cultures to which they are exposed also matters. The ideal situation is one in which the cultures are different enough to be challenging but not so different as to be overwhelming. Once their multiple identities are developed, individuals might adopt a number of strategies to manage them. Understanding the path to the development of a multicultural mind and the various ways that individuals manage their multiculturalism are important steps in understanding the relationship of multicultural experience to innovation, and how we all might develop a multicultural mind.