NOTES

Chapter 1

1. See Benet-Martínez & Hong, 2014, for a compilation of the most recent academic research on multicultural identity.

2. Population Division of the United Nations Secretariat, 2011.

3. Hamel, 2000.

4. According to iSixSigma (iSixSima.com), “Six Sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach and methodology, developed by Motorola in 1986, for eliminating defects (driving toward six standard deviations between the mean and the nearest specification limit) in any process.”

5. The Conference Board, 2015.

6. See Amabile, 1997, for a discussion of the componential theory of individual creativity.

7. Amabile, 1993.

8. Meehan, 2013.

9. The first sentence is a common definition of creativity in psychology; the second is from Osho, 1999.

10. See Diego Rodriguez’s influential blog metacool.

11. Amabile, 1993.

12. From Johnson, 2010; Guier & Weiffenbach, 1997.

13. Maddux & Galinsksy, 2009. See also Chang et al., 2014.

14. Duncker, 1945.

15. See Fitzsimmons, 2013.

16. For a summary of research in this area see Thomas & Peterson, 2014.

17. See Phinney, 1999.

18. See Sternberg, 1985.

Chapter 2

1. This story was adapted from Seelye & Wasilewski, 1996.

2. See Barlow, 1991, for a description of the wero.

3. See Howard, 1991.

4. See Triandis, 1994.

5. See Bell, 1973; Kahl, 1968, for a more complete discussion.

6. Yang, 1988.

7. See Watson, 1997, for additional discussion.

8. American is used here in the colloquial sense to mean people living in the United States, recognizing that everyone in the Americas can properly be called Americans.

9. See Osland & Bird, 2000.

10. For a discussion see Nisbett et al., 2001.

11. Bryant & Law, 2004.

12. Global Commission on International Migration, 2005.

13. Abstracted from Roy, 2014.

14. Meet young immigrants, Scholastic, accessed July 17, 2015, http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/immigration/young_immigrants/vandi.htm.

15. Lindsay, 2014.

16. See Triandis, 1995, for a discussion.

17. See Berry, 1997, for more on acculturation.

18. Kosic et al., 2004.

19. See Oberg, 1960, for a full description of this effect.

20. From Thomas & Inkson, 2009.

21. This metaphor is typically attributed to E. T. Hall, 1976.

Chapter 3

1. From Gladwell, 1998.

2. For a thorough discussion of self-identity, see Markus, 1977; Markus & Kitayama, 1991.

3. See Hamaguchi, 1985.

4. See Kitayama & Uskul, 2011.

5. From Bontempo, Lobel & Triandis, 1990.

6. From Pekerti & Thomas, 2015.

7. Liu, 1998.

8. See Tajfel, 1981.

9. See Ashforth & Mael, 1989.

10. See Hong et al., 2000.

11. As discussed in chapter 4, frame switching is not uniform among multiculturals. See also Benet-Martínez et al., 2002.

12. This discussion draws heavily on Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006.

13. This stage model should not be overinterpreted. It is presented for illustration only. Individuals may not pass sequentially through these stages. And there may be no clear demarcation between the stages.

14. Adapted from Pekerti & Thomas, 2015. Recent research on brain plasticity shows that both the structure and function of the human brain can be reorganized as a result of environmental factors. See, for example, Maguire et al., 1999.

15. See Tetlock, 1986, and Tetlock et al., 1996, for a discussion.

16. See, for example, Piaget, 1929; Erikson, 1993.

17. Deloch-Hughes, 2012.

18. See the excellent book by Pollock & Van Reken, 2009, for a comprehensive discussion of TCKs.

19. See Lee, Bain & McCallum, 2007, for an interesting study of creativity in TCKs.

Chapter 4

1. These quotations are from an unpublished study by Fitzsimmons, Vora & Thomas, 2015.

2. For more on bicultural integration, see work by Verónica Benet-Martínez, especially Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005.

3. This framework is from Fitzsimmons, 2013.

4. From Fitzsimmons, Liao & Thomas, 2015.

5. See Uz, 2015, for an index of tight and loose cultures around the world.

6. From Fitzsimmons, Liao & Thomas, 2015.

7. From Fitzsimmons, Liao & Thomas, 2015.

8. Abstracted from a story in Benet-Martínez & Hong, 2014.

9. From Fitzsimmons, Liao & Thomas, 2015.

10. For more about the self-concept see Markus, 1977, and Markus & Kitayama, 1991.

11. From Thúy, 1998.

12. See Molinsky, 2007, for a discussion of the psychological toll associated with multiple identities.

13. See Shi & Lu, 2007.

14. This perspective on social capital is from Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998.

15. Hong & Doz, 2013.

16. Bagby, 1957.

17. For more on this process, see Thomas & Peterson, 2014.

18. See Maguire et al., 2000.

19. See Tadmor & Tetlock, 2006.

20. See Tadmor et al., 2012.

21. For more, see Hong & Doz, 2013.

Chapter 5

1. A sea chantey (pronounced shanty) is derived from the French word chant (song). It is a type of work song that was once commonly sung to accompany hard labor on board large merchant ships.

2. Seelye & Wasilewski, 1996.

3. Based on “Rakuten’s English policy: Just speak it,” Wall Street Journal Japan, June 29, 2012.

4. For more on English as a common corporate language, see Neeley, 2012, and Zander et al., 2011.

5. See Zander et al., 2011, for a discussion.

6. See Neeley, 2013, for more on this effect.

7. Adapted from Neeley, 2013.

8. See Friedriksson et al., 2006.

9. See Zander et al., 2011.

10. Thomas, 1999.

11. See Maclean, 2006.

12. Engholm, 1991.

13. As reported in the online newspaper Nettavisen.

14. From Hong & Doz, 2013.

15. For more on translation of concrete and abstract words by multiculturals, see Ringberg et al., 2010.

16. These two quotations are from Harzing et al., 2011.

17. From Barner-Rasmussen et al., 2014.

18. For more on this trend, see Marschan-Piekkari et al., 1999.

Chapter 6

1. Race is not really a physical category but a social construction (see Montagu, 1942). Realizing the inadequacy of the term, I (like many scholars) use it here as shorthand to refer to genetically induced variation in humans.

2. Adapted from a story in Seelye & Wasilewski, 1996.

3. From Gaskins, 1999.

4. From Gaskins, 1999.

5. Abstracted from Metchie, 2009.

6. See Wilder, 1978.

7. Adapted from Shaw, 1990.

8. See Smith et al., 2013.

9. Liu, 1998.

10. Early research in this area was conducted by Katz & Braly, 1933.

11. See Sidanius, 1993.

12. Women’s Executive Network, 2012.

13. See Benet-Martínez, Leu & Lee, 2006, for more on this effect.

14. Linville & Jones, 1980.

15. See Bandura, 1977.

16. From Sherif, 1966.

17. See Allport, 1954.

18. This is based on an idea first presented in Pettigrew, 1998.

19. See Sagiv & Schwartz, 1995; Patchen, 1982.

Chapter 7

1. From Milgram, 1963.

2. See Peters & Waterman, 1982.

3. See Leung & Chiu, 2010.

4. Bloomberg Business, 2006.

5. See Amabile, 1997, for a discussion.

6. This is an often-told story of dubious authenticity that illustrates findings by Deci, 1972, about intrinsic motivation.

7. See Amabile et al., 1996.

8. From Hackman & Oldham, 1980.

9. Oldham & Cummings, 1996.

10. Adapted from Robinson & Stern, 1997.

11. Office Snapshots, 2015.

12. See Garcia & Hoelscher, 2010.

13. See Cox, 2001, for an extended discussion.

14. The quotations are from Fitzsimmons, Vora & Thomas, 2014.

Chapter 8

1. Strauch, 2010, and the NTSB as reported in Thomas & Peterson, 2014.

2. For a complete description of the experiment, see “The Stanford Prison Experiment,” at www.prisonexp.org.

3. See Haney, Banks & Zimbardo, 1973.

4. From a speech in 2008 on accepting the Transcultural Leader Award at INSEAD. Reported in Fitzsimmons, Miska & Stahl, 2011.

5. See Stahl, Maznevski, Voigt & Jonsen, 2010, for a review.

6. See Tadmor, Satterstrom, Jang & Polzer, 2012, for an example.

7. For a more in-depth discussion of cultural diversity in teams, see chapter 8 in Thomas & Peterson, 2014.

8. Lau & Murnighan, 1998; 2005

9. See Galinsksy et al., 2008.

10. Janis, 1982.

11. See Jehn & Mannix, 2001.

12. Karambayya & Brett, 1989.

13. Tinsley, 1998.

14. Adapted from a case in Thomas & Inkson, 2009.

15. Jang, 2014.

16. See Jonsen, Maznevski & Davison, 2012, for a deeper discussion of virtual teams.

17. See Hoegl, Gibbert & Mazursky, 2008; Baker & Nelson, 2005.

18. Barner-Rasmussen et al., 2014.

Chapter 9

1. From Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, 1982.

2. In 1968 Leonard Nimoy, as Mr. Spock, wrote a long and thoughtful response to a young mixed-race girl who felt she would never fit in. The full exchange can be found at Demby, 2015.

3. From speeches at Columbia University, 2009, and the Colorado Innovation Summit, 2012. According to the company’s website, “Coca-Cola boasts six research & development centers, the goal of which is to advance local and regional innovations. The company also has a multicultural, multiethnic, multigenerational innovation council that meets quarterly to develop promising ideas.”

4. See Amabile, 1997, for a thorough discussion of these principles of creativity.

5. IBM’s website: http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/index.shtml.

6. Apple’s website: https://www.apple.com/diversity/.

7. Cisco Systems’ website: http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ac49/ac55/about_us.html.

8. Amabile, 1997.

9. Hackman & Oldham, 1980.

10. See Locke & Latham, 1990.

11. Oldham & Cummings, 1996.

12. See Kolb, 1984, for a complete discussion of experiential learning.

13. From an interview in Stahl & Brannen, 2013.

14. Fee, Gray & Lu, 2013.

15. See Thomas & Lazarova, 2014.

16. From Global Giving Matters, September–October 2004; Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011; and PwC’s website.

17. Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011.