Glossary

after-only with control group design
True experimental design that involves random assignment of subjects or test units to experimental and control groups, but no premeasurement of the dependent variable.
ad hoc mail surveys
Questionnaires sent to selected names and addresses without prior contact by the researcher; sometimes called one-shot mail surveys.
allowable sampling error
Amount of sampling error the researcher is willing to accept.
analogy
Drawing a comparison between two items in terms of their similarities.
analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Test for the differences among the means of two or more independent samples.
applied research
Research aimed at solving a specific, pragmatic problem—better understanding of the marketplace, determination of why a strategy or tactic failed, or reduction of uncertainty in management decision making.
attitude
Enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of a person’s environment.
balanced scales
Measurement scales that have the same number of positive and negative categories.
basic, or pure, research
Research aimed at expanding the frontiers of knowledge rather than solving a specific, pragmatic problem.
before and after with control group design
True experimental design that involves random assignment of subjects or test units to experimental and control groups and pre- and postmeasurements of both groups.
behavioral targeting
The use of online and offline data to understand a consumer’s habits, demographics, and social networks in order to increase the effectiveness of online advertising.
Big Data
The accumulation and analysis of massive quantities of information.
bivariate regression analysis
Analysis of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables when one is considered the independent variable and the other the dependent variable.
bivariate techniques
Statistical methods of analyzing the relationship between two variables.
call center telephone interviews
Interviews conducted by calling respondents from a centrally located marketing research facility.
captive outsourcing
When a research firm creates a wholly owned foreign facility for outsourcing.
cartoon test
Projective test in which the respondent fills in the dialog of one of two characters in a cartoon.
case analysis
Reviewing information from situations that are similar to the current one.
causal research
Research designed to determine whether a change in one variable likely caused an observed change in another.
causal studies
Research studies that examine whether the value of one variable causes or determines the value of another variable.
causation
Inference that a change in one variable is responsible for (caused) an observed change in another variable.
census
Collection of data obtained from or about every member of the population of interest.
central limit theorem
Idea that a distribution of a large number of sample means or sample proportions will approximate a normal distribution, regardless of the distribution of the population from which they were drawn.
chance variation
The difference between the sample value and the true value of the population mean.
chi-square test
Test of the goodness of fit between the observed distribution and the expected distribution of a variable.
clarity
Achieved by avoiding ambiguous terminology, using reasonable, vernacular language adjusted to the target group, and asking only one question at a time.
closed-ended questions
Questions that require the respondent to choose from a list of answers.
closed online panel recruitment
Inviting only prevalidated individuals or those with shared known characteristics to enroll in a research panel.
cluster analysis
General term for statistical procedures that classify objects or people into some number of mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups on the basis of two or more classification variables.
cluster sample
Probability sample in which the sampling units are selected from a number of small geographic areas to reduce data collection costs.
Coding
Process of grouping and assigning numeric codes to the various responses to a question.
coefficient of determination
Measure of the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable explained by variations in the independent variables.
coefficient of determination
Percentage of the total variation in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable.
collinearity
Correlation of independent variables with each other, which can bias estimates of regression coefficients.
commercial online panels
Group of individuals who have agreed to receive invitations to do online surveys from a particular panel company such as eRewards or SSI. The panel company charges organizations doing surveys for access to the panel. Charges are usually so much per survey depending on survey length and the type of people being sought for the survey. The panel company controls all access to the members of its panel.
comparative scales
Measurement scales in which one object, concept, or person is compared with another on a scale.
computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI)
Call center telephone interviews in which interviewers enter respondents’ answers directly into a computer.
conclusions
Generalizations that answer the questions raised by the research objectives or otherwise satisfy the objectives.
concomitant variation
The degree to which a presumed cause and a presumed effect occur or vary together.
concurrent validity
Degree to which another variable, measured at the same point in time as the variable of interest, can be predicted by the measurement instrument.
confidence interval
Interval that, at the specified confidence level, includes the true population value.
confidence level
Probability that a particular interval will include true population value; also called confidence coefficient.
conjoint analysis
Multivariate procedure used to quantify the value that consumers associate with different levels of product/service attributes or features.
constant sum scales
Measurement scales that ask the respondent to divide a given number of points, typically 100, among two or more attributes, based on their importance to him or her.
constitutive definition
Statement of the meaning of the central idea or concept under study, establishing its boundaries; also known as theoretical, or conceptual, definition.
constructs
Specific types of concepts that exist at higher levels of abstraction.
construct validity
Degree to which a measurement instrument represents and logically connects, via the underlying theory, the observed phenomenon to the construct.
consumer drawings
Projective technique in which respondents draw what they are feeling or how they perceive an object.
consumer orientation
The identification of and focus on the people or firms most likely to buy a product and the production of a good or service that will meet their needs most effectively.
contamination
Inclusion in a test of a group of respondents who are not normally there; for example, buyers from outside the test market who see an advertisement intended only for those in the test area and enter the area to purchase the product being tested.
content validity
Representativeness, or sampling adequacy, of the content of the measurement instrument.
convenience samples
Nonprobability samples based on using people who are easily accessible.
convergent validity
Degree of correlation among different measurement instruments that purport to measure the same construct.
conversion
An action that a person takes based on an advertiser’s website, such as checking out, registering, adding an item to the shopping cart, or viewing a specific page.
correlation analysis
Analysis of the degree to which changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.
cost per impression
The cost to offer potential customers one opportunity to see an advertisement. Often expressed in terms of cost per thousand (CPM).
creativity
The ability to generate and recognize potentially useful ideas.
criterion-related validity
Degree to which a measurement instrument can predict a variable that is designated a criterion.
cross tabulation
Examination of the responses to one question relative to the responses to one or more other questions.
custom research firms
Companies that carry out customized marketing research to address specific projects for corporate clients.
data entry
Process of converting information to an electronic format.
data mining
The use of statistical and other advanced software to discover nonobvious patterns hidden in a database.
data visualization
The use of picture visualization techniques to illustrate the relationship within data.
decision rule
Rule or standard used to determine whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.
decision support system (DSS)
An interactive, personalized information management system, designed to be initiated and controlled by individual decision makers.
degrees of freedom
Number of observations in a statistical problem that are free to vary.
Delphi Method
Rounds of individual data collection from knowledgeable people. Results are summarized and returned to the “participants for further refinement.”
dependent variable
A symbol or concept expected to be explained or influenced by the independent variable.
dependent variable
Variable expected to be explained or caused by the independent variable.
descriptive function
The gathering and presentation of statements of fact.
descriptive studies
Research studies that answer the questions who, what, when, where, and how.
design control
Use of the experimental design to control extraneous causal factors.
determinant attitudes
Those consumer attitudes most closely related to preferences or to actual purchase decisions.
diagnostic function
The explanation of data or actions.
dichotomous questions
Closed-ended questions that ask the respondents to choose between two answers.
discriminant coefficient
Estimate of the discriminatory power of a particular independent variable; also called discriminant weight.
discriminant score
Score that is the basis for predicting to which group a particular object or individual belongs; also called Z score.
discriminant validity
Measure of the lack of association among constructs that are supposed to be different.
discussion guide
Written outline of topics to be covered during a focus group discussion.
disguised observation
Process of monitoring people who do not know they are being watched.
disproportional, or optimal, allocation
Sampling in which the number of elements taken from a given stratum is proportional to the relative size of the stratum and the standard deviation of the characteristic under consideration.
door-to-door interviews
Interviews conducted face to face with consumers in their homes.
dummy variables
In regression analysis, a way of representing two-group or dichotomous, nominally scaled independent variables by coding one group as 0 and the other as 1.
editing
Going through each questionnaire to ensure that skip patterns were followed and the required questions filled out.
editing
Process of ascertaining that questionnaires were filled out properly and completely.
electroencephalograph (EEG)
Machine that measures electrical pulses on the scalp and generates a record of electrical activity in the brain.
equivalent form reliability
Ability of two very similar forms of an instrument to produce closely correlated results.
error-checking routines
Computer programs that accept instructions from the user to check for logical errors in the data.
error sum of squares
Variation not explained by the regression.
ethics
Moral principles or values, generally governing the conduct of an individual or group.
ethnographic research
Study of human behavior in its natural context, involving observation of behavior and physical setting.
evaluative research
Research done to assess program performance.
executive interviews
Industrial equivalent of door-to-door interviewing.
executive summary
Portion of a research report that explains why the research was done, what was found, what those findings mean, and what action, if any, management should undertake.
experience surveys
Discussions with knowledgeable individuals, both inside and outside the organization, who may provide insights into the problem.
experiment
Research approach in which one variable is manipulated and the effect on another variable is observed.
experimental design
Test in which the researcher has control over and manipulates one or more independent variables.
experimental effect
Effect of the treatment variable on the dependent variable.
experiments
Research to measure causality, in which the researcher changes one or more independent variables and observes the effect of the changes on the dependent variable.
exploratory research
Preliminary research conducted to increase understanding of a concept, to clarify the exact nature of the problem to be solved, or to identify important variables to be studied.
external validity
Extent to which causal relationships measured in an experiment can be generalized to outside persons, settings, and times.
face validity
Degree to which a measurement seems to measure what it is supposed to measure.
factor
A linear combination of variables that are correlated with each other.
factor analysis
Procedure for simplifying data by reducing a large set of variables to a smaller set of factors or composite variables by identifying underlying dimensions of the data.
factor loading
Correlation between factor scores and the original variables.
field experiments
Tests conducted outside the laboratory in an actual environment, such as a marketplace.
field management companies
Firms that provide such support services as questionnaire formatting, screener writing, and coordination of data collection.
Field service firms
Companies that only collect survey data for corporate clients or research firms.
finite population correction factor (FPC)
An adjustment to the required sample size that is made in cases where the sample is expected to be equal to 5 percent or more of the total population.
focus group
Group of 8 to 12 participants who are led by a moderator in an in-depth discussion on one particular topic or concept.
focus group facility
Research facility consisting of a conference room or living room setting and a separate observation room with a one-way mirror or live audiovisual feed.
focus group moderator
Person hired by the client to lead the focus group; this person should have a background in psychology or sociology or, at least, marketing.
frame error
Error resulting from an inaccurate or incomplete sampling frame.
F test
Test of the probability that a particular calculated value could have been due to chance.
galvanic skin response (GSR)
Change in the electric resistance of the skin associated with activation responses; also called electrodermal response.
garbologists
Researchers who sort through people’s garbage to analyze household consumption patterns.
geographic information system (GIS)
Computer-based system that uses secondary and/or primary data to generate maps that visually display various types of data geographically.
goal orientation
A focus on the accomplishment of corporate goals; a limit set on consumer orientation.
graphic rating scales
Measurement scales that include a graphic continuum, anchored by two extremes.
group dynamics
Interaction among people in a group.
hermeneutic research
Research that focuses on interpretation through conversations.
history
Intervention, between the beginning and end of an experiment, of outside variables or events that might change the dependent variable.
hypothesis
An assumption or theory (guess) that a researcher or manager makes about some characteristic of the population being investigated.
hypothesis
Assumption or theory that a researcher or manager makes about some characteristic of the population under study.
hypothesis test of proportions
Test to determine whether the difference between proportions is greater than would be expected because of sampling error.
independence assumption
Assumption that sample elements are drawn independently.
independent samples
Samples in which measurement of a variable in one population has no effect on measurement of the variable in the other.
independent variable
A symbol or concept over which the researcher has some control and that is hypothesized to cause or influence the dependent variable.
independent variable
Variable believed to affect the value of the dependent variable.
individual depth interviews
One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions, often using nondirective techniques to uncover hidden motivations.
innovation
The successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization.
input error
Error that results from the incorrect input of information into a computer file or database.
insight
Newer knowledge that has the potential to create significant marketing impact.
instant analysis
Moderator debriefing, offering a forum for brainstorming by the moderator and client observers.
instrument variation
Changes in measurement instruments (e.g., interviewers or observers) that might affect measurements.
intelligent data entry
Form of data entry in which the information being entered into the data entry device is checked for internal logic.
internal consistency reliability
Ability of an instrument to produce similar results when used on different samples during the same time period to measure a phenomenon.
internal database
A collection of related information developed from data within the organization.
internal validity
Extent to which competing explanations for the experimental results observed can be ruled out.
interrupted time-series design
Research in which repeated measurement of an effect “interrupts” previous data patterns.
interval estimate
Interval or range of values within which the true population value is estimated to fall.
interval scales
Scales that have the characteristics of ordinal scales, plus equal intervals between points to show relative amounts; they may include an arbitrary zero point.
interviewer error, or interviewer bias
Error that results from the interviewer’s influencing—consciously or unconsciously—the answers of the respondent.
itemized rating scales
Measurement scales in which the respondent selects an answer from a limited number of ordered categories.
judgment samples
Nonprobability samples in which the selection criteria are based on the researcher’s judgment about representativeness of the population under study.
laboratory experiments
Experiments conducted in a controlled setting.
Likert scales
Measurement scales in which the respondent specifies a level of agreement or disagreement with statements expressing either a favorable or an unfavorable attitude toward the concept under study.
logical or machine cleaning of data
Final computerized error check of data.
longitudinal study
Study in which the same respondents are resampled over time.
low-ball pricing
Quoting an unrealistically low price to secure a firm’s business and then using some means to substantially raise the price.
mail panels
Precontacted and prescreened participants who are periodically sent questionnaires.
mall-intercept interviews
Interviews conducted by intercepting mall shoppers (or shoppers in other high-traffic locations) and interviewing them face to face.
management decision problem
A statement specifying the type of managerial action required to solve the problem.
marketing
The process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.
marketing concept
A business philosophy based on consumer orientation, goal orientation, and systems orientation.
marketing mix
The unique blend of product/service, pricing, promotion, and distribution strategies designed to meet the needs of a specific target market.
marketing research
The planning, collection, and analysis of data relevant to marketing decision making and the communication of the results of this analysis to management.
marketing research objective
A goal statement, defining the specific information needed to solve the marketing research problem.
marketing research online community (MROC)
Carefully selected group of consumers who agree to participate in an ongoing dialogue with a corporation.
marketing research problem
A statement specifying the type of information needed by the decision maker to help solve the management decision problem and how that information can be obtained efficiently and effectively.
marketing strategy
A plan to guide the long-term use of a firm’s resources based on its existing and projected internal capabilities and on projected changes in the external environment.
maturation
Changes in subjects occurring during the experiment that are not related to the experiment but that may affect subjects’ response to the treatment factor.
mean
Sum of the values for all observations of a variable divided by the number of observations.
measurement
Process of assigning numbers or labels to persons, objects, or events in accordance with specific rules for representing quantities or qualities of attributes.
measurement error
Systematic error that results from a variation between the information being sought and what is actually obtained by the measurement process.
measurement instrument bias
Error that results from the design of the questionnaire or measurement instrument; also known as questionnaire bias.
median
Value below which 50 percent of the observations fall.
metric scale
A type of quantitative that provides the most precise measurement.
mode
Value that occurs most frequently.
mortality
Loss of test units or subjects during the course of an experiment, which may result in a nonrepresentativeness.
multidimensional scales
Scales designed to measure several dimensions of a concept, respondent, or object.
multiple-choice questions
Closed-ended questions that ask the respondent to choose among several answers; also called multichotomous questions.
multiple discriminant analysis
Procedure for predicting group membership for a (nominal or categorical) dependent variable on the basis of two or more independent variables.
multiple regression analysis
Procedure for predicting the level or magnitude of a (metric) dependent variable based on the levels of multiple independent variables.
multiple time-series design
Interrupted time-series design with a control group.
multistage area sampling
Geographic areas selected for national or regional surveys in progressively smaller population units, such as counties, then residential blocks, then homes.
multivariate analysis
A general term for statistical procedures that simultaneously analyze multiple measurements on each individual or object under study.
mystery shoppers
People who pose as consumers and shop at a company’s own stores or those of its competitors to collect data about customer–employee interactions and to gather observational data; they may also compare prices, displays, and the like.
net promoter score
A measure of satisfaction; the percentage of promoters minus the percentage of detractors when answering the question, “Would you recommend this to a friend?”
neural network
A computer program that mimics the processes of the human brain and thus is capable of learning from examples to find patterns in data.
Neuromarketing
The process of researching the brain patterns and certain physiological measures of consumers to marketing stimuli.
nominal or categorical
A type of nonmetric qualitative data scale that only uses numbers to indicate membership in a group (e.g., 1 = male, 2 = female). Most mathematical and statistical procedures cannot be applied to nominal data.
nominal scales
Scales that partition data into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories.
nonbalanced scales
Measurement scales that are weighted toward one end or the other of the scale.
noncomparative scales
Measurement scales in which judgment is made without reference to another object, concept, or person.
nonprobability sample
A subset of a population in which the chances of selection for the various elements in the population are unknown.
nonprobability samples
Samples in which specific elements from the population have been selected in a nonrandom manner.
nonresponse bias
Error that results from a systematic difference between those who do and those who do not respond to a measurement instrument.
nonsampling error
All errors other than sampling error; also called measurement error.
normal distribution
Continuous distribution that is bell-shaped and symmetric about the mean; the mean, median, and mode are equal.
null hypothesis
The hypothesis of status quo, no difference, no effect.
observation research
Typically, descriptive research that monitors respondents’ actions without direct interaction.
observation research
Systematic process of recording patterns of occurrences or behaviors without normally communicating with the people involved.
one-group pretest–posttest design
Preexperimental design with pre- and postmeasurements but no control group.
one-shot case study design
Pre-experimental design with no pretest observations, no control group, and an after measurement only.
one-way frequency table
Table showing the number of respondents choosing each answer to a survey question.
one-way mirror observation
Practice of watching behaviors or activities from behind a one-way mirror.
open-ended questions
Questions to which the respondent replies in her or his own words.
open observation
Process of monitoring people who know they are being watched.
open online panel recruitment
Any person with Internet access can self-select to be in a research panel.
operational definition
Statement of precisely which observable characteristics will be measured and the process for assigning a value to the concept.
opportunity identification
Using marketing research to find and evaluate new opportunities.
ordinal scales
Scales that maintain the labeling characteristics of nominal scales and have the ability to order data.
outsourcing
Having personnel in another country perform some, or all, of the functions involved in a marketing research project.
paired comparison scales
Measurement scales that ask the respondent to pick one of two objects in a set, based on some stated criteria.
Pearson’s product–moment correlation
Correlation analysis technique for use with metric data.
personification
Drawing a comparison between a product and a person.
photo sort
Projective technique in which a respondent sorts photos of different types of people, identifying those people who she or he feels would use the specified product or service.
physical control
Holding constant the value or level of extraneous variables throughout the course of an experiment.
pilot studies
Surveys using a limited number of respondents and often employing less rigorous sampling techniques than are employed in large, quantitative studies.
point estimate
Particular estimate of a population value.
population
Entire group of people about whom information is needed; also called universe or population of interest.
population distribution
Frequency distribution of all the elements of a population.
population parameter
A value that accurately portrays or typifies a factor of a complete population, such as average age or income.
population specification error
Error that results from incorrectly defining the population or universe from which a sample is chosen.
population standard deviation
Standard deviation of a variable for the entire population.
predictive function
Specification of how to use descriptive and diagnostic research to predict the results of a planned marketing decision.
predictive validity
Degree to which a future level of a criterion variable can be forecast by a current measurement scale.
preexperimental designs
Designs that offer little or no control over extraneous factors.
pretest
Trial run of a questionnaire.
primary data
New data gathered to help solve the problem under investigation.
probability sample
A subset of a population where every element in the population has a known nonzero chance of being selected.
probability samples
Samples in which every element of the population has a known, nonzero likelihood of selection.
profession
Organization whose membership is determined by objective standards, such as an examination.
professionalism
Quality said to be possessed by a worker with a high level of expertise, the freedom to exercise judgment, and the ability to work independently.
programmatic research
Research conducted to develop marketing options through market segmentation, market opportunity analyses, or consumer attitude and product usage studies.
projective test
Technique for tapping respondents’ deepest feelings by having them project those feelings into an unstructured situation.
proportional allocation
Sampling in which the number of elements selected from a stratum is directly proportional to the size of the stratum relative to the size of the population.
proportional property of the normal distribution
Feature that the number of observations falling between the mean and a given number of standard deviations from the mean is the same for all normal distributions.
purchase-intent scales
Scales used to measure a respondent’s intention to buy or not buy a product.
P value
Exact probability of getting a computed test statistic that is due to chance. The smaller the p value, the smaller the probability that the observed result occurred by chance.
qualitative research
Research whose findings are not subject to quantification or quantitative analysis.
quantitative research
Research that uses mathematical analysis.
quasi-experiments
Studies in which the researcher lacks complete control over the scheduling of treatments or must assign respondents to treatments in a nonrandom manner.
questionnaire
Set of questions designed to generate the data necessary to accomplish the objectives of the research project; also called an interview schedule or survey instrument.
quota samples
Nonprobability samples in which quotas, based on demographic or classification factors selected by the researcher, are established for population subgroups.
random-digit dialing
Method of generating lists of telephone numbers at random.
random error, or random sampling error
Error that results from chance variation.
randomization
Random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions to ensure equal representation of subject characteristics.
rank-order scales
Measurement scales in which the respondent compares two or more items and ranks them.
ratio scales
Scales that have the characteristics of interval scales, plus a meaningful zero point so that magnitudes can be compared arithmetically.
recommendations
Conclusions applied to marketing strategies or tactics that focus on a client’s achievement of differential advantage.
refusal rate
Percentage of persons contacted who refused to participate in a survey.
regression coefficients
Estimates of the effect of individual independent variables on the dependent variable.
regression to the mean
Tendency of subjects with extreme behavior to move toward the average for that behavior during the course of an experiment.
related samples
Samples in which measurement of a variable in one population may influence measurement of the variable in the other.
reliability
Degree to which measures are free from random error and, therefore, provide consistent data.
request for proposal (RFP)
A solicitation sent to marketing research suppliers inviting them to submit a formal proposal, including a bid.
research design
The plan to be followed to answer the marketing research objectives.
research management
Overseeing the development of excellent communication systems, data quality, time schedules, cost controls, client profitability, and staff development.
research proposal
A document developed, usually in response to an RFP, that presents the research objectives, research design, timeline, and cost of a project.
research request
An internal document used by large organizations that describes a potential research project, its benefits to the organization, and estimated costs; it must be formally approved before a research project can begin.
response bias
Error that results from the tendency of people to answer a question incorrectly through either deliberate falsification or unconscious misrepresentation.
return on quality
Management objective based on the principles that (1) the quality being delivered is at a level desired by the target market and (2) the level of quality must have a positive impact on profitability.
rule
Guide, method, or command that tells a researcher what to do.
sample
Subset of all the members of a population of interest.
sample design error
Systematic error that results from an error in the sample design or sampling procedures.
sample distribution
Frequency distribution of all the elements of an individual sample.
sample size
The identified and selected population subset for the survey, chosen because it represents the entire group.
sampling
Process of obtaining information from a subset of a larger group.
sampling distribution of the mean
Theoretical frequency distribution of the means of all possible samples of a given size drawn from a particular population; it is normally distributed.
sampling distribution of the proportion
Relative frequency distribution of the sample proportions of many random samples of a given size drawn from a particular population; it is normally distributed.
sampling error
Error that occurs because the sample selected is not perfectly representative of the population.
sampling frame
The list of population elements or members from which units to be sampled are selected.
sampling frame
List of population elements from which units to be sampled can be selected or a specified procedure for generating such a list.
scale
Set of symbols or numbers so constructed that the symbols or numbers can be assigned by a rule to the individuals (or their behaviors or attitudes) to whom the scale is applied.
scaled-response questions
Closed-ended questions in which the response choices are designed to capture the intensity of the respondent’s feeling.
scaling
Procedures for assigning numbers (or other symbols) to properties of an object in order to impart some numerical characteristics to the properties in question.
scaling of coefficients
A method of directly comparing the magnitudes of the regression coefficients of independent variables by scaling them in the same units or by standardizing the data.
scanning technology
Form of data entry in which responses on questionnaires are read in automatically by the data entry device.
scatter diagram
Graphic plot of the data with dependent variable on the Y (vertical) axis and the independent variable on the X (horizontal) axis. Shows the nature of the relationship between the two variables, linear or nonlinear.
screeners
Questions used to identify appropriate respondents.
secondary data
Data that have been previously gathered.
selection bias
Systematic differences between the test group and the control group due to a biased selection process.
selection error
Error that results from incomplete or improper sample selection procedures or not following appropriate procedures.
selective research
Research used to test decision alternatives.
self-administered questionnaires
Questionnaires filled out by respondents with no interviewer present.
semantic differential scales
Measurement scales that examine the strengths and weaknesses of a concept by having the respondent rank it between dichotomous pairs of words or phrases that could be used to describe it; the means of the responses are then plotted as a profile or image.
sentence and story completion test
Projective test in which respondents complete sentences or stories in their own words.
simple random sample
Probability sample selected by assigning a number to every element of the population and then using a table of random numbers to select specific elements for inclusion in the sample.
situation analysis
Studying the decision-making environment within which the marketing research will take place.
skip pattern
Sequence in which questions are asked, based on a respondent’s answer.
skip pattern
Sequence in which later questions are asked, based on a respondent’s answer to an earlier question or questions.
snowball samples
Nonprobability samples in which additional respondents are selected based on referrals from initial respondents.
split-half technique
Method of assessing the reliability of a scale by dividing the total set of measurement items in half and correlating the results.
spurious association
A relationship between a presumed cause and a presumed effect that occurs as a result of an unexamined variable or set of variables.
stability
Lack of change in results from test to retest
standard deviation
Measure of dispersion calculated by subtracting the mean of the series from each value in a series, squaring each result, summing the results, dividing the sum by the number of items minus 1, and taking the square root of this value.
standard error of the mean
Standard deviation of a distribution of sample means.
standard normal distribution
Normal distribution with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.
Stapel scales
Measurement scales that require the respondent to rate, on a scale ranging from +5 to –5, how closely and in what direction a descriptor adjective fits a given concept.
statistical control
Adjusting for the effects of confounded variables by statistically adjusting the value of the dependent variable for each treatment condition.
statistical power
Probability of not making a type II error.
statistical significance
A difference that is large enough that it is not likely to have occurred because of chance or sampling error.
storytelling
Projective technique in which respondents are required to tell stories about their experiences, with a company or product, for example; also known as the metaphor technique.
strategic partnership
An alliance formed by two or more firms with unique skills and resources to offer a new service for clients, provide strategic support for each firm, or in some other manner create mutual benefits.
stratified sample
Probability sample that is forced to be more representative through simple random sampling of mutually exclusive and exhaustive subsets.
sum of squares due to regression
Variation explained by the regression.
supervisor’s instructions
Written directions to the field service firm on how to conduct the survey.
surrogate information error
Error that results from a discrepancy between the information needed to solve a problem and that sought by the researcher.
survey objectives
Outline of the decision-making information sought through the questionnaire.
survey research
Research in which an interviewer (except in mail and Internet surveys) interacts with respondents to obtain facts, opinions, and attitudes.
syndicated service research firms
Companies that collect, package, and sell market research data to many firms.
systematic error, or bias
Error that results from problems or flaws in the execution of the research design; sometimes called nonsampling error.
systematic sampling
Probability sampling in which the entire population is numbered and elements are selected using a skip interval.
systems orientation
The creation of systems to monitor the external environment and deliver the desired marketing mix to the target market.
temporal sequence
An appropriate causal order of events.
testing effect
Effect that is a by-product of the research process itself.
test market
Real-world testing of a new product or some element of the marketing mix using an experimental or quasi-experimental design.
test–retest reliability
Ability of the same instrument to produce consistent results when used a second time under conditions as similar as possible to the original conditions.
third-person technique
Projective technique in which the interviewer learns about respondents’ feelings by asking them to answer for a third party, such as “your neighbor” or “most people.”
treatment variable
Independent variable that is manipulated in an experiment.
true experimental design
Research using an experimental group and a control group, to which test units are randomly assigned.
t test
Hypothesis test used for a single mean if the sample is too small to use the Z test.
type I error (α error)
Rejection of the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is true.
type II error (β error)
Failure to reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is false.
unidimensional scales
Scales designed to measure only one attribute of a concept, respondent, or object.
unrestricted Internet sample
Self-selected sample group consisting of anyone who wishes to complete an Internet survey.
utilities
The relative value of attribute levels determined through conjoint analysis.
validation
Process of ascertaining that interviews actually were conducted as specified.
validity
The degree to which what the researcher was trying to measure was actually measured.
variable
A symbol or concept that can assume any one of a set of values.
word association test
Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind.
Z test
Hypothesis test used for a single mean if the sample is large enough and drawn at random.
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