Index
Note: ‘Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures, “t” indicate tables.’
Accelerometers
Acoustic monitoring
Aerospace applications, optical fiber mechanical sensors
accelerometers, 255
aircraft design, 244–245
aircraft industry, 248–249
antenna, 240
BOCDA, 251
Bulldog light aircraft, 250–251
cantilever beam theory, 256
CVM, 253
data mining, 248
design and test phases, 248
D-fiber, 242
embedding fibers, 258–259
ESA, 241–242
fail-safe philosophy, 244–245
fatigue failures, 245–246
fiber cavity etalons, 241
flight control, measurements for
Fourier transform, 254
g-loads, 250–251
graphite epoxy composite, 240
grating sensors, 258
interrogation methods, 254
Ko theory, 247–248
long-period gratings, 249–250
matched grating approach, 257
NASA, 246
NDE, 238
NDI, 237
optical fiber Bragg grating sensors, advantages of, 239
optical spectrum analyzer, 257
Pak notes, 252
palladium-coated Bragg grating fibers, 242
photodetector, 257
photogrammetry, 252
piezoelectric sensors and actuators, 246–247
POF sensor, 249
radial vibration, 250
Rayleigh scattering, 254
safe-life philosophy, 245
shape reconstruction methods, 253
SHM, stages of, 239
smart structures, 241–242
SNR, 256
solar sails, 243
structural transfer functions, 247
surface-mounted sensors, 253
tangential vibrations, 250
threat factor, 257–258
truss structure, 240–241
vibrations, 256
wing-tip displacement, 247
Bending plate hydrophone design, 199
BGS, See Brillouin gain spectrum (BGS)
Biomechanics, fiber optical sensors
adhesion to biological tissues, 268
body fluids, 264
Camino pressure sensors, 282–283
human body liquids, 282–283
intraarticular pressure, 284–286
intramuscular/intracompartmental pressure, 283–284
intravascular and intracardiac, 282–283
deformable bodies, 264
biomechanical materials testing, 275–277
body structure, 275–277
bone cements, 278
force prediction, 280
FORP system, 281–282
macrobending technology, 281–282
SGs, 277–278
traumatic head and dental injuries, 278
electrical conductivity, 267
geometrical versatility, 268
immunity to electromagnetic interference, 267
inertness and biocompatibility, 265–267
light source, 265
pertinent physical parameters, 268
quantitative discipline, 264
remote operation and sensing, 267
rigid bodies, 263–264
assessing body kinematics, 269
concept of, 268–269
data stations, 269–270
electric goniometers and torsiometers, 273–274
EMG systems, 271
force platform, 271
FOV, 269–270
high natural frequency platforms, 271
MEMS-based IMU, 275
MoCap optical systems, hardware components of, 269–270
multiplexed FBG arrays, 273
passive retroreflective markers, 269–270
pedobarograph, 273
pressure mapping devices, 272–273
SHAPE TAPE, 274–275
shear stress, 272–273
three-dimensional MoCap systems, 271
small dimensions and light weight, 267
thermal expansion and thermal conductivity, 267
Biomedical fiber optic sensor systems
biophysical parameters, 302–303
cardiovascular diagnostics
diagnostic technologies, 312–314
fiber bragg grating, 308–311
FPI
fabrication technique, 305–306
FP cavity, 304–305
nanothick silver diaphragm, 306–307
standard multimode fiber, 305–306
standard single-mode fiber, 305–306
metrologic, 301
physical, 301
pressure-sensing applications, 303
robotic microsurgery
calibration, 327
clinical use, 327
optical fiber diameter, 326–327
optical fiber materials, 327
retinal microsurgery, 319–325
tool-shaft force feedback, 325–326
VRS, 318–319
smart textiles and wearable sensors, 327–330
system, 302
Birefringence, 7
Birefringent refractive index change (Type II), 148
Bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), 317
Body fluids, biomechanics of, 264
Camino pressure sensors, 282–283
human body liquids, 282–283
intraarticular pressure, 284–286
intramuscular/intracompartmental pressure, 283–284
intravascular and intracardiac, 282–283
Bragg wavelength sensitivity, different film thicknesses
Brillouin frequency shift (BFS), 98
Brillouin light spectrum, 99
Brillouin optical correlation domain analysis (BOCDA), 251
Brillouin optical correlation-domain reflectometry (BOCDR), 115–116
Brillouin optical frequency-domain analysis (BOFDA), 116
BFS dependence, large strain
core diameter and fiber length, influence of
Brillouin linewidth narrowing effect, 112–113
long fiber length, 111
small core diameters, effects of, 110–111
fundamental properties
induction of
strain and temperature dependence
Brittle fracture, 93
Cantilever test, 88
Cardiovascular diagnostics
Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), 223
Comparative vacuum monitoring (CVM), 252–253
Coupled-mode theory, 12
first-order differential equations, 16–17
optical fiber gratings, 23–25
phase matching, 15–16
superstructure FBGs
CVM, See Comparative vacuum monitoring (CVM)
Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), 214–215
Data mining, 248
DBR, See Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR)
Deformable bodies, biomechanics of, 264
biomechanical materials testing, 275–277
body structure, 275–277
bone cements, 278
force prediction, 280
FORP system, 281–282
macrobending technology, 281–282
SGs, 277–278
traumatic head and dental injuries, 278
Degree of freedom (DOF), 320
DFB, See Distributed feedback (DFB)
Different pressure sensitivity, 189
Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), 164–165
Distributed pressure-sensing (DPS), 191–192
Distributed-feedback laser diode (DFB-LD), 100–101
Drawdown, 224
D-shape fiber, 162
Ductile fracture, 92–93
EDFA, See Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA)
Electric strain gauge, 78–79
Electrical spectrum analyzer (ESA), 100–101
Electromyography (EMG), 271
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 214–215
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), 100–101
European Space Agency (ESA), 241–242
Fabry–Perot (FP), 284
Fabry–Perot interferometry (FPI), 303–304
fabrication technique, 305–306
FP cavity, 304–305
nanothick silver diaphragm, 306–307
standard multimode fiber, 305–306
standard single-mode fiber, 305–306
Failure-onset PCB strain, 94–95
Fatigue test
aluminum alloy, 52–55
friction stir–welded aluminum alloy
cyclic hardening/softening, 61–62
motivation, 56–57
NZ, 60
plastic deformation, 62–63
sample preparations, 57–59
TMAZ, 60
magnesium alloy, 55–56
FBGs, See Fiber bragg gratings (FBGs)
Femtosecond laser-induced Bragg gratings
active sensing, 164–165
bulk interferometers, 148–150
chemical sensing, 162–164
energy deposition, 143–144
energy transfer, 143–144
free electron plasma formation
avalanche ionization process, 144–146
conduction band electrons, 144–146
critical plasma density, 144–146
electron density, 144–146
seed electrons, 144–146
subpicosecond pulses, 146
transparent dielectric materials, 144
fs-IR laser systems, 143–144
harsh environments, multiparameter sensing in, 159–161
high pressure, 161–162
high radiation, 158–159
high-sensitivity strain measurements, 164–167
high temperature
Fabry–Perot structures, 156–157
fs-IR laser/phase mask approach, 155–156
gas turbine monitoring, 157–158
inhomogeneous combustion, 157–158
metallic coatings, 155
SFBGs, 157
silica single-mode fibers, 154–155
silica-based optical fibers, 156–157
stainless steel tubing/ceramic alumina tubing, 155
type I and type II gratings, 153–154
volume Bragg gratings, 157
induced index change, regimes of
birefringent refractive index change (Type II), 148
type I/smooth refractive index change, 146–147
void formation, 148
phase mask
Bragg resonance, 150–151
Fourier components, 150–151
nonsinusoidal modulated gratings, 150–151
phase mask order walk-off, 151
traditional UV laser–induced gratings, 150
point-by-point grating inscription, 151–152
Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors
basics and sensor fabrication
Bragg wavelength, 77–78
electric strain gauge, 78–79
Hooke’s law, 78–79
laser beam, 78
object deformation, 78–79
phase mask method, 78
polyimide coating, 78
BGA, 83–84
cantilever strain, 80–81
capabilities, 95
different mechanical properties, 76–77
four-point bending system and test setup
microstructures, 75–76
pad crater, 76–77
test results
Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), 303–304
Bragg wavelength (λB), 1
core refractive index, 139
coupled-mode theory, See Coupled-mode theory
damage-like process, 140
grating structure, 138–139
femtosecond laser-induced Bragg gratings
applications of, 152–167
bulk interferometers, 148–150
energy deposition, 143–144
energy transfer, 143–144
free electron plasma formation, 144–146
fs-IR laser systems, 143–144
induced index change, regimes of, 146–148
phase mask, 150–151
point-by-point grating inscription, 151–152
high-intensity portions, 139
hydrogen gas, 141
laser-induced damage, 140
phase mask approach, 140
photosensitivity, 141
remnant index modulation, 141
sensor
spectral response, 1
structurally and thermally induced index changes
temperature-dependent decay, 140
UV photon absorption process, 140
Fiber cavity etalons, 241
Fiber optical respiratory plethysmography (FORP) technique, 281–282
Fiber optic sensors (FOSs)
acoustic monitoring
advantages, 232–233
biomechanics, See Biomechanics, fiber optical sensors
biomedical applications, See Biomedical fiber optic sensor systems
downhole environment, pressure monitoring in
Bragg grating–based sensors, 222–223
CTE, 223
drawdown, 224
Fabry–Perot-based sensors, 222–223
interference testing, 226
lift monitoring, 224–226
pressure and temperature, 225
pressure transient analysis, 224
SAGD applications, 226
zonal monitoring, 225–226
flow monitoring
multiparameter sensing, 232–233
oil and gas industry
categories, 212–213
CO2, 215
CSS, 214–215
downstream sector, 212–213
hydraulic fracturing, 215
hydrocarbon production processes, 212–213
SAGD, 214–215
seismic monitoring
thermal monitoring
Field of view (FOV), 268
Flat-cladding fiber Bragg grating sensors
experiments, 51–52
fatigue test of
fiber optic sensors, 49–50
large strain amplitudes, 49–50
magnesium alloy of, asymmetric fatigue deformation
Flip-chip ball grid array (FC-BGA), 75–76
Flow monitoring
Flowmeter
FP, See Fabry–Perot (FP)
Fractional flow reserve (FFR), 315–316
Friction stir welding (FSW), 56–57
Ground reaction force (GRFz), 272f
Heat-affected zone (HAZ), 57
High-pressure high-temperature (HPHT), 191–192
High-pressure sensors
commercial bending plate type, 191–192
enhanced side-hole fiber pressure sensor, 191
mechanical transducer (plate, tube), 189–190
second fiber Bragg grating temperature sensor, 187–188
sensor design concepts, 187
spliceless distributed pressure sensing, 192–193
using common-mode configuration, 188–189
Hooke’s law, 78–79
Hydraulic fracture monitoring, 232
Hydrogen, 184–185
Hydrogen gas, 141
Hydrogen loading, 141
Hydrophone
Inertial measurement units (IMU), 275
Injection monitoring, 228–229
Innovative fiber Bragg grating sensors
Bragg wavelength, 176
coupled-wave theory, 176
dedicated operational conditions
cryogenic temperature, 183
DTS system, 181
fiber optic sensors, 181
high operational pressure, 183–184
high temperature, 182–183
hydrogen, 184–185
low stiffness fiber, 185
radiation, 184
vacuum, 184
high-end performance, critical properties/characteristics of
dedicated interrogators, development of, 180–181
high sensitivity, 178–179
high-speed measurement, 179
large number of sensors, 179–180
large-scale sensor network system, 175–176
nonstandard applications, 177
physical parameters, 177–178
accelerometer, 199–201
flowmeter, 201–204
high-pressure sensors, 186–193
hydrophone, 196–199
miniaturized pressure sensor, 193–196
primary sensing parameters, 177
reflection wavelength, 176
revolutionary developments, 175
standard specifications, 177
Interference testing, 226
Interferometric flowmeter, 227–228
Intervertebral disc (IVD), 281
Intraarticular pressure (IAP), 284–286
Karhunen–Loeve transform (KLT), 305–306
Large strain amplitude fatigue tests
aluminum alloy, 52–55
friction stir–welded aluminum alloy
cyclic hardening/softening, 61–62
motivation, 56–57
NZ, 60
plastic deformation, 62–63
sample preparations, 57–59
TMAZ, 60
magnesium alloy, 55–56
Lift monitoring, 224–226
Low stiffness fiber, 185
Low-cycle fatigu (LCF) tests, 56–57
Measurement test rig, 38–39
Mechanical transducer (plate, tube), 189–190
Microseismic monitoring, 229–231
Minimal detectable strain (MDS), 164
Multimode fibers (MMFs), 127–128
Nondestructive evaluation (NDE), 238
Nondestructive inspection (NDI), 237
Nucleus pulposus (NP), 285
Nugget zone (NZ), 57
Numerical aperture (NA), 99–100
Optical fiber sensors, roles, 244
Optical path difference (OPD), 197–198
Optical spectrum analyzer (OSA), 78–79
Opto-mechanical modeling
Pad crater, 76–77
Partial differential equations (PDEs), 10–11
PbP, See Point-by-point (PbP)
PCBA, See Printed circuit board assembly (PCBA)
Perfluorinated graded-index (PFGI), 99–100
Periodic on-fiber films, 27–28
Phase matching condition, 15–16
Photodiode (PD), 100–101
Photosensitivity, 141
Physical parameters, 177–178
accelerometers
flowmeter
miniaturized pressure sensor, 193–196
high-pressure sensors
commercial bending plate type, 191–192
enhanced side-hole fiber pressure sensor, 191
mechanical transducer (plate, tube), 189–190
second fiber Bragg grating temperature sensor, 187–188
sensor design concepts, 187
spliceless distributed pressure sensing, 192–193
using common-mode configuration, 188–189
hydrophone
Pipeline intrusion detection, 231–232
Piston design, 197–199
Plastic strain amplitude
PMMA, See Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Pockels’ photoelastic constant, 2–5
Point-by-point (PbP), 151–152
BFS dependence, large strain, 113–115
core diameter and fiber length, influence of, 109–113
fundamental properties, 98–102
induction of, 106–109
strain and temperature dependence, 102–106
concept, 97–98
distributed measurement
double-modulation schemes, 121
experimental results, 119–121
experimental setup, 118–119
motivation, 116
principle, 116–118
SMF-based BOCDR, 121
temporal-gating, 121
memory effect, 97–98
POF fuse
Pressure transient analysis, 224
Pressure/temperature (P/T), 211
Printed circuit board assembly (PCBA), 75–76
Production monitoring, 229
Pump–probe technique, 106
Radiation, 184
Radiation-hard fibers, 184
Refractive index distribution, 189
Riccati ordinary differential equation (ODE), 31–32
Rigid bodies, biomechanics of, 263–264
assessing body kinematics, 269
concept of, 268–269
data stations, 269–270
electric goniometers and torsiometers, 273–274
EMG systems, 271
force platform, 271
FOV, 269–270
high natural frequency platforms, 271
MEMS-based IMU, 275
MoCap optical systems, hardware components of, 269–270
multiplexed FBG arrays, 273
passive retroreflective markers, 269–270
pedobarograph, 273
pressure mapping devices, 272–273
SHAPE TAPE, 274–275
shear stress, 272–273
three-dimensional MoCap systems, 271
Robotic microsurgery
calibration, 327
clinical use, 327
optical fiber diameter, 326–327
optical fiber materials, 327
retinal microsurgery
3-DOF force-sensing pick instrument, 323–325
2-DOF force-sensing tool, 320
tool-tip force feedback, 319–320
transverse force calculation, 320–322
two degrees of freedom motorized microforceps, 322–323
tool-shaft force feedback, 325–326
VRS, 318–319
Sapphire fiber (SFBGs), 157
Seismic monitoring
Seismic surface arrays, 231
Self-heterodyne detection, 100–101
SGs, See Strain gauges (SGs)
SHM, See Structural health monitoring (SHM)
Single-mode fiber (SMF-28), 80
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), 214–215
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), 101
Stokes power, 110
Structural health monitoring (SHM), 239
Superstructure fiber Bragg gratings (SFBGs), 17
measurement test rig, 38–39
geometrical features, 38
optical response analysis
strain and temperature, simultaneous measurement of, 44–46
structural loading, 41–43
temperature variations, 39–41
opto-mechanical modeling
periodic on-fiber films, 31–32
stress–strain–temperature relations, 30–31
structural modeling, 29
periodic on-fiber films, 27–28
simulation results
Theory and opto-mechanical modeling of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs)
Bragg wavelength (λB), 1
coupled-mode theory, 12
first-order differential equations, 16–17
optical fiber gratings, 23–25
phase matching, 15–16
SFBGs, 17–19
FEA
light propagation in optical fibers
optical fibers, opto-mechanical properties of
structurally and thermally induced index changes
Thermal monitoring
downhole thermal monitoring applications
gas entry, 218
gas lift optimization, 219
injection monitoring, 219
liquid flow, 217–218
wax buildup, 219
pipeline monitoring
SAGD optimization, 221–222
Time domain multiplexing (TDM), 180
Type I/smooth refractive index change, 146–147
color center defects, 147
Ge-doped silica, 146–147
hydrogen loading process, 147
micro-Raman spectroscopy, 146–147
Vacuum, 184
Vertical seismic profile (VSP), 230
Vitreoretinal surgery (VRS), 318–319
Void formation, 148
Vortex flowmeter, 201–203
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), 211–212
Wavelength domain multiplexing (WDM), 179
Zonal monitoring, 225–226
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