Authority Relations at Work

Despite all the talk about flattened organizations, participative management, and empowerment, hierarchy is alive and well in most work organizations today. Indeed, one of the most important lessons that effective managers learn is that their everyday behaviors get interpreted “through the lens of authority relations.”^[8] In other words, our assumptions about boss-subordinate relationships influence what (and who) we pay attention to, how we interpret what we attend to, and how we behave toward others. We develop our attitudes toward authority in at least two ways: our place in the organizational structure (for example, whether we are in a boss or subordinate role at work) and our personality (for example, the attitudes about authority that we unconsciously develop early in our lives).

Organizational Structure and Authority Relations

Research suggests that subordinates tend to pay more attention to and develop more complex interpretations of the behavior of people who are higher than they are in the organizational hierarchy.^[9] In contrast, bosses tend to pay less attention to individual subordinates, develop relatively simplistic interpretations of their behavior, think less about individual differences among subordinates, and often don't realize how their behaviors affect subordinates.^[10] Subordinates' keen interest in their boss's attitudes, feelings, and behaviors is understandable because the boss has a significant impact on the subordinates' task effectiveness, career development, job satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Certainly, subordinates have an impact on the boss's effectiveness, career development, and well-being, as well. However, as psychologist Marty Grothe, coauthor of Problem Bosses: Who They Are and How to Deal with Them, explains, when things go wrong in a relationship, “the person who has the least power will hurt more.”^[11]

Harvard professor Linda Hill says that bosses tend to be particularly unaware of “how their everyday behaviors get scrutinized and amplified by subordinates” and how “seemingly insignificant actions can have broad consequences.”^[12] Picture the boss who calls an employee into his or her office without an explanation (“Smith, I'd like to see you in my office at 11:00 tomorrow morning.”). Not knowing what to expect, Smith may imagine a variety of reasons for the meeting (“What did I do?” “Am I in trouble?” “Is there going to be a downsizing, and am I going to be laid off?”). The manager may have called Smith to the office to offer a promotion, challenging job assignment, or reward for a job well done. However, Smith may imagine at least some worst-case scenarios unless he or she is given information about the purpose of the meeting in advance. Although the manager probably won't give the meeting another thought until the next morning, Smith may lose a little sleep worrying about the purpose of the meeting.

Nobody is as powerful as we make them out to be.

—Alice Walker, In Search of our Mother's Gardens

Although subordinates tend to have less power than their boss, they also tend to underestimate how much the boss depends on them and how much power the subordinates have in the relationship. Researcher Kenwyn K. Smith explains that all groups in an organizational hierarchy have power, albeit different kinds.^[13] People at upper levels have the power to define the organization's reality (by setting the organization's direction, rules, policies, procedures, and quality standards). People at lower levels have the power to support or resist that reality (by offering or withholding support, psychologically or physically withdrawing from the organization, joining unions, and engaging in public protest). People at middle levels have the power to either bring the people at the lower and upper levels together or keep them apart, often by acting as filters for information and resources. Notably, the people in the middle may be invested in keeping those at upper and lower levels apart, because if people at upper and lower levels could figure out how to work directly and effectively with each other, then the people at the middle level would lose a significant base of power. Indeed, the security of the people in the middle is often dependent on maintaining distance between people at upper and lower levels.

In short, organizational structure creates psychological and physical boundaries between hierarchical groups. Where we sit in the organizational hierarchy influences how we think and act within our group and toward others.

Personality and Authority Relations

We develop our attitudes toward authority long before we enter the world of work, and we bring these attitudes into every boss-subordinate relationship that we have.^[14] Psychoanalysts argue that we develop our beliefs about authority through our experiences with our earliest authority figures—our parents and primary caretakers. These experiences influence our relationships toward authority figures throughout our lives primarily by unconsciously shaping our assumptions about the goodwill and dependability of authority figures. Boston University researchers William Kahn and Kathy Kram describe three orientations toward authority: ^[15]

• Interdependent. If our primary caretakers are responsive toward our needs in our earliest years, we are likely to develop the belief that we are worthy of their goodwill and can depend on them to take care of us. Consequently, our attitudes toward authority figures will be that authority figures are likely to be trustworthy and dependable unless proven otherwise. Whether we are in the boss or subordinate role, we are likely to view the authority relationship as being built on mutual respect and responsibility (“We're in this together.” “How can we help each other?”). Kahn and Kram argue that interdependent attitudes are likely to lead to the most effective and satisfying boss-subordinate relationships.

• Dependent. If our primary caretakers are inconsistent in their care of us (for example, sometimes being accessible and caring, while at other times being distant and uncaring), we may develop the belief that we can sometimes count on authority figures and sometimes not. Because we see that our caretakers are able to care for us at least some of the time, we attribute their inconsistency not to their willingness or ability to take care of us but to our own worthiness. In other words, we believe it is our fault when the caretaker does not respond to us. Consequently, we spend much of our time and effort trying to win the caretaker's attention and affection. When we become adults, our attitude toward authority figures is likely to be one of dependence, and we will try to do whatever it takes to please authority figures in order to earn their goodwill and support. Whether we are in the boss or subordinate role, we will expect that the boss's job is to take care of the subordinate and the subordinate's job is to please the boss (“Whatever you say, boss.” “The boss is always right.”).

• Counterdependent. If our primary caretakers are psychologically or physically absent in our early years, we may develop the belief that we cannot depend on authority figures to take care of our needs and that we can only count on ourselves to get what we need in life. Consequently, as adults, we are likely to view authority figures as irrelevant or hurdles to overcome. Whether we are in the boss or subordinate role, we are likely to resist authority by assuming that the role of the boss is irrelevant and that the boss should stay out of their subordinates' way (“You can't count on the boss to get anything done.” “You don't need the boss to help you accomplish your goals.”).

Simply stated, we unknowingly bring our childhood attitudes toward authority into our roles as bosses and subordinates at work when we are adults. Because we see certain types of authority relations as “normal” (interdependent, dependent, or counterdependent), we are likely to act in ways that create the authority dynamics that we expect. For example, if we have a dependent attitude toward authority, then we are likely to expect our bosses to take care of us and act more helpless than we really are. When we are in the boss role, we are likely to encourage the people who work for us to be dependent on us, often by withholding important information, training, or material resources that would enable subordinates to become more independent.

No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.

—Eleanor Roosevelt

If we have a counterdependent attitude toward authority, we are likely to reject the authority of our boss, which will further strain our relationship with the boss. When we are in the boss role, we are likely to dismiss our own authority and responsibility toward employees and not offer support and assistance even when subordinates want and need our help. If we have an interdependent attitude toward authority, we are likely to act in ways that bring out the best in the boss-subordinate relationship. These different orientations toward authority are illustrated in Figure 5-1.

In short, our personality and our place in the organizational hierarchy significantly shape what we notice, how we interpret what we notice, and how we behave toward our bosses and subordinates. To avoid falling into dysfunctional patterns of boss-subordinate relationships, remember the following:

• The boss-subordinate relationship is a partnership between two fallible human beings who are dependent on each other's expertise, support, and goodwill for their professional effectiveness, career success, and psychological well-being.^[16]

• Our position in an organizational hierarchy (lower, middle, upper) and our childhood attitudes toward authority may pull us into unconscious and often misguided assumptions and behaviors that can undermine our effectiveness, as well as that of our bosses, our subordinates, and the organization.

• Both bosses and subordinates have power in the relationship. Indeed, the higher we go in the organizational hierarchy, the more dependent we are on others to get our work done.

The best things you can do to develop effective relationships with your bosses and subordinates are to develop an understanding and appreciation for authority relations at work; be aware of your own attitudes toward authority and how they influence your ability to have an effective relationship with your boss; learn strategies that are likely to enhance the quality of your relationship with your bosses and subordinates; and systematically apply these techniques in your everyday work life.