Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Separation Process Engineering
1.1. Importance of Separations
1.6. Computers and Computer Simulations
1.8. Other Resources on Separation Process Engineering
2.1. Basic Method of Flash Distillation
2.2. Form and Sources of Equilibrium Data
2.3. Graphical Representation of Binary VLE
2.4. Binary Flash Distillation
2.4.1. Sequential Solution Procedure
Example 2-1. Flash separator for ethanol and water
2.4.2. Simultaneous Solution Procedure
2.4.3. Simultaneous Solution and Enthalpy-Composition Diagram
2.6. Multicomponent Flash Distillation
Example 2-2. Multicomponent flash distillation
2.7. Simultaneous Multicomponent Convergence
Example 2-3. Simultaneous solution for flash distillation
2.8. Three-Phase Flash Calculations
Example 2-4. Calculation of drum size
2.10. Using Existing Flash Drums
Appendix A. Computer Simulation of Flash Distillation
Appendix B. Spreadsheets for Flash Distillation
2.B.1. Binary Flash Distillation with Excel
2.B.2. Multicomponent Flash Distillation with Excel
Chapter 3 Introduction to Column Distillation
3.1. Developing a Distillation Cascade
Example 3-1. External balances for binary distillation
Chapter 4 Binary Column Distillation: Internal Stage-by-Stage Balances
4.2. Binary Stage-by-Stage Solution Methods
Example 4-1. Stage-by-stage calculations by the Lewis method
4.3. Introduction to the McCabe-Thiele Method
Example 4-2. Feed line calculations
4.5. Complete McCabe-Thiele Method
Example 4-3. McCabe-Thiele method
4.6. Profiles for Binary Distillation
Example 4-4. McCabe-Thiele analysis of open steam heating
4.8. General McCabe-Thiele Analysis Procedure
Example 4-5. Distillation with two feeds
4.9. Other Distillation Column Situations
4.9.3. Side Streams or Withdrawal Lines
4.9.4. Intermediate Reboilers and Intermediate Condensers
4.9.5. Stripping and Enriching Columns
4.10. Limiting Operating Conditions
4.13. New Uses for Old Columns
4.14. Subcooled Reflux and Superheated Boilup
4.15. Comparisons Between Analytical and Graphical Methods
Appendix A. Computer Simulation of Binary Distillation
Appendix B. Spreadsheets for Binary Distillation
Chapter 5 Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation
5.1. Calculational Difficulties
Example 5-1. External mass balances using fractional recoveries
5.2. Profiles for Multicomponent Distillation
5.3. Stage-by-Stage Calculations for CMO
Example 5-2. Bubble-point calculation
Appendix A. Simplified Spreadsheet for Stage-by-Stage Calculations for Ternary Distillation
Example 5-3. Stage-by-stage calculations for stripping column
Appendix B. Automated Spreadsheet with VBA for Stage-by-Stage Calculations for Ternary Distillation
Chapter 6 Exact Calculation Procedures for Multicomponent Distillation
6.1. Introduction to Matrix Solution for Multicomponent Distillation
6.2. Component Mass Balances in Matrix Form
6.3. Initial Guesses for Flow Rates and Temperatures
Example 6-1. Matrix and bubble-point calculations
6.5. Energy Balances in Matrix Form
6.6. Introduction to Naphtali-Sandholm Simultaneous Convergence Method
Appendix. Computer Simulations for Multicomponent Column Distillation
Chapter 7 Approximate Shortcut Methods for Multicomponent Distillation
7.1. Total Reflux: Fenske Equation
7.2. Minimum Reflux: Underwood Equations
Example 7-2. Underwood equations
7.3. Gilliland Correlation for Number of Stages at Finite Reflux Ratios
Example 7-3. Gilliland correlation
Chapter 8 Introduction to Complex Distillation Methods
8.1. Breaking Azeotropes with Other Separators
8.2. Binary Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation Processes
8.2.1. Binary Heterogeneous Azeotropes—Single-Column System
8.2.2. Binary Heterogeneous Azeotropes—Two-Column System
8.2.3. Drying Organic Compounds That Are Partially Miscible with Water
Example 8-1. Drying benzene by distillation
Example 8-2. Steam distillation
8.4. Pressure-Swing Distillation Processes
8.5. Complex Ternary Distillation Systems
Example 8-3. Development of distillation and residue curves for constant relative volatility
8.7. Azeotropic Distillation with Added Solvent
8.8. Distillation with Chemical Reaction
Appendix A. Simulation of Complex Distillation Systems
Appendix B. Spreadsheet for Residue Curve Generation
9.1. Introduction to Batch Distillation
9.2. Batch Distillation: Rayleigh Equation
9.2.1. Mixed Distillate Product
9.2.2. Distillate Product Fractions
9.3. Simple Binary Batch Distillation
Example 9-1. Simple binary Rayleigh distillation
9.4. Constant-Mole Batch Distillation
9.6. Multistage Binary Batch Distillation
Example 9-2. Multistage batch distillation
9.7. Multicomponent Simple Batch Distillation
Example 9-3. Multicomponent simple batch distillation
Appendix A. Spreadsheet for Simple Multicomponent Batch Distillation, Constant Relative Volatility
Chapter 10 Staged and Packed Column Design
10.1. Staged Column Equipment Description
10.1.1. Trays, Downcomers, and Weirs
Example 10-1. Overall efficiency estimation
10.3. Column Diameter Calculations
Example 10-2. Diameter calculation for tray column
10.4. Balancing Calculated Diameters
10.5. Sieve Tray Layout and Tray Hydraulics
Example 10-3. Tray layout and hydraulics
10.7. Introduction to Packed Column Design
10.8. Packings and Packed Column Internals
10.9. Height of Packing: HETP Method
10.10. Packed Column Flooding and Diameter Calculation
Example 10-4. Packed column diameter calculation
10.11. Economic Trade-Offs for Packed Columns
Appendix. Tray and Downcomer Design with Computer Simulator
Chapter 11 Economics and Energy Conservation in Distillation
11.2. Basic Heat Exchanger Design
11.3. Design and Operating Effects on Costs
Example 11-1. Cost estimate for distillation
11.4. Changes in Plant Operating Rates
11.5. Energy Conservation in Distillation
11.6. Synthesis of Column Sequences for Almost Ideal Multicomponent Distillation
Example 11-2. Sequencing columns with heuristics
11.7. Synthesis of Distillation Systems for Nonideal Ternary Systems
Example 11-3. Process development for separation of complex ternary mixture
Chapter 12 Absorption and Stripping
12.1. Absorption and Stripping Equilibria
12.2. McCabe-Thiele Solution for Dilute Absorption
Example 12-1. McCabe-Thiele analysis for dilute absorber
12.3. Stripping Analysis for Dilute Systems
12.4. Analytical Solution for Dilute Systems: Kremser Equation
Example 12-2. Stripping analysis with the Kremser equation
12.6. McCabe-Thiele Analysis for More Concentrated Systems
Example 12-3. Graphical analysis for more concentrated absorber
12.8. Dilute Multisolute Absorbers and Strippers
12.9. Matrix Solution for Concentrated Absorbers and Strippers
12.10. Irreversible Absorption and Cocurrent Cascades
Appendix. Computer simulations of absorption and stripping
Chapter 13 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
13.1. Extraction Processes and Equipment
13.2. Dilute, Immiscible, Countercurrent Extraction
13.2.1. McCabe-Thiele Method for Dilute Systems
Example 13-1. Dilute countercurrent immiscible extraction
13.2.2. Kremser Method for Dilute Systems
13.3. Dilute Fractional Extraction
13.4. Immiscible Single-Stage and Cross-Flow Extraction
Example 13-2. Single-stage and cross-flow extraction of protein
13.5. Concentrated Immiscible Extraction
Example 13-3. Concentrated immiscible extraction
13.6. Immiscible Batch Extraction
13.7. Extraction Equilibrium for Partially Miscible Ternary Systems
13.8. Mixing Calculations and the Lever-Arm Rule
13.9. Partially Miscible Single-Stage and Cross-Flow Systems
Example 13-4. Partially miscible single-stage extraction
13.10. Countercurrent Extraction Cascades for Partially Miscible Systems
13.10.1. External Mass Balances
13.10.2. Difference Points and Stage-by-Stage Calculations
13.10.3. Complete Partially Miscible Extraction Problem
Example 13-5. Countercurrent extraction
13.11. Relationship Between McCabe-Thiele and Triangular Diagrams for Partially Miscible Systems
13.12. Minimum Solvent Rate for Partially Miscible Systems
13.13. Extraction Computer Simulations
13.14. Design of Mixer-Settlers
13.14.2. Settler (Decanter) Design
Example 13-6. Mixer-settler design
Appendix. Computer Simulation of Extraction
Chapter 14 Washing, Leaching, and Supercritical Extraction
14.1. Generalized McCabe-Thiele and Kremser Procedures
14.3. Leaching with Constant Flow Rates
14.4. Leaching with Variable Flow Rates
Example 14-2. Leaching calculations
14.5. Introduction to Supercritical Fluid Extraction
14.6. Application of McCabe-Thiele and Kremser Methods to Other Separations
Chapter 15 Introduction to Diffusion and Mass Transfer
15.1. Molecular Movement Leads to Mass Transfer
15.2. Fickian Model of Diffusivity
15.2.1. Fick’s Law and the Fickian Definition of Diffusivity
15.2.2. Steady-State Binary Fickian Diffusion and Mass Balances without Convection
Example 15-1. Determination of diffusivity in dilute binary mixture
Example 15-2. Steady-state diffusion without convection: Low-temperature evaporation
15.2.3. Unsteady Binary Fickian Diffusion with No Convection (Optional)
15.2.4. Steady-State Binary Fickian Diffusion and Mass Balances with Convection
Example 15-3. Steady-state diffusion with convection: High-temperature evaporation
15.3. Values and Correlations for Fickian Binary Diffusivities
15.3.1. Fickian Binary Gas Diffusivities
Example 15-4. Estimation of temperature effect on Fickian gas diffusivity
15.3.2. Fickian Binary Liquid Diffusivities
15.3.3. Numerical Solution with Variable Binary Diffusivity
Example 15-5. Numerical solution for variable diffusivity and molar concentration
15.4. Linear Driving-Force Model of Mass Transfer for Binary Systems
15.4.1. Film Theory for Dilute and Equimolar Transfer Systems
15.4.2. Transfer through Stagnant Films: Absorbers and Strippers
15.4.3. Binary Mass Transfer to Expanding or Contracting Objects
Example 15-6. Shrinking diameter of oxygen bubble
Example 15-7. Dissolution of solid particle
15.5. Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients
15.5.2. Theoretically Derived Mass Transfer Correlations
15.5.3. Semi-Empirical and Empirical Mass Transfer Coefficient Correlations
Example 15-8. Estimation of mass transfer coefficients
15.5.4. Correlations Based on Analogies
15.6. Difficulties with Fickian Diffusion Model
15.7. Maxwell-Stefan Model of Diffusion and Mass Transfer
15.7.1. Introductory Development of the Maxwell-Stefan Theory of Diffusion
15.7.2. Maxwell-Stefan Equations for Binary Nonideal Systems
15.7.3. Determining Independent Fluxes Nj,z
15.7.4. Maxwell-Stefan Difference Equation Formulations
15.7.5. Relationship between Maxwell-Stefan and Fickian Diffusivities
Example 15-9. Maxwell-Stefan nonideal binary diffusion
Example 15-10. Maxwell-Stefan ideal ternary system
15.7.7. Ternary Mass Transfer to Expanding or Contracting Objects
Example 15-11. Ternary transfer from an evaporating drop
15.7.8. Nonideal Ternary Systems
15.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Diffusion and Mass Transfer Models
Appendix. Spreadsheets Examples 15-10 and 15-11
Chapter 16 Mass Transfer Analysis for Distillation, Absorption, Stripping, and Extraction
16.1. HTU-NTU Analysis of Packed Distillation Columns
Example 16-1. Distillation in a packed column
16.2. Relationship of HETP and HTU
16.3. Mass Transfer Correlations for Packed Towers
16.3.1. Bolles and Fair Correlation for Random Packings
Example 16-2. Estimation of HG and HL
16.3.2. Simple Correlations for Random Packings
16.4. HTU-NTU Analysis of Concentrated Absorbers and Strippers
Example 16-3. Absorption of SO2
16.5. HTU-NTU Analysis of Cocurrent Absorbers
16.6. Prediction of Distillation Tray Efficiency
Example 16-4. Estimation of distillation stage efficiency
16.7. Mass Transfer Analysis of Extraction
16.7.1. Extraction Mass Transfer Equations and HTU-NTU Analysis
16.7.2. Calculation of Stage Efficiency in Extraction Mixers
Example 16-5. Conversion of mass transfer coefficients and estimation of mixer stage efficiency
16.7.4. Mass Transfer Coefficients in Mixers
16.7.4.1. Mixer Mass Transfer Coefficients for Individual Drops (Optional)
16.7.4.2. Mass Transfer Coefficients for Drop Swarms in Mixers
16.7.4.3. Conservative Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficients for Extraction
16.8. Rate-Based Analysis of Distillation
Appendix. Computer Rate-Based Simulation of Distillation
Chapter 17 Crystallization from Solution
17.1. Basic Principles of Crystallization from Solution
17.1.1. Crystallization Process
17.1.2. Binary Equilibrium and Crystallizer Types
17.2. Continuous Cooling Crystallizers
17.2.1. Equilibrium and Mass Balances for Single Solute Producing Pure Solute Crystals
Example 17-1. Continuous cooling crystallizer mass balances without hydrates
Example 17-2. Continuous cooling crystallizer mass balances for hydrates
Example 17-3. Mixing solutions when hydrates are dissolved in water
Example 17-4. Eutectic equilibrium and mass balances
17.3. Evaporative and Vacuum Crystallizers
Example 17-5. Evaporative crystallizer without hydrate
Example 17-6. Evaporative crystallizer with hydrate
17.3.3. Simultaneous Mass, Energy, and Equilibrium Calculations
Example 17-7. Vacuum crystallizer: Simultaneous mass, energy, and equilibrium calculations
Example 17-8. Screen analysis of crystallization data
17.5. Introduction to Population Balances
17.6. Crystal Size Distributions for MSMPR Crystallizers
17.6.1. Crystal Nucleation and Growth
17.6.2. Development of MSMPR Equation and Determination of G and n° from Experiment
Example 17-9. Determination of kinetic parameters from screen analysis data
17.6.3. Development and Application of Distributions for MSMPR Crystallizers
Example 17-10. Use of differential mass distribution to analyze screen analysis data
Example 17-11. Prediction of sieve analysis
Example 17-12. Combination of equilibrium and MSMPR distribution
17.7.1. CSD Analysis for Growth on Seeds in Continuous Crystallizers
Example 17-13. CSD of seeded crystallizer
17.7.2. Controlling Crystal Size by Seeding
Example 17-14. Increasing crystal size with seeding
17.8. Batch and Semibatch Crystallization
17.8.1. Temperature Control for Batch Cooling Crystallizers
17.8.2. Antisolvent Crystallization
Example 17-15. Antisolvent crystallization
17.9.1. Precipitation by Antisolvent Addition
17.9.2. Precipitation by Salting Out
Example 17-16. Salting out with a common ion
Chapter 18 Introduction to Membrane Separation Processes
18.1. Membrane Separation Equipment
18.3.1. Gas Permeation of Binary Mixtures
18.3.2. Binary Permeation in Perfectly Mixed Systems
Example 18-1. Well-mixed gas permeation—sequential, analytical solution
Example 18-2. Well-mixed gas permeation—simultaneous solutions
18.3.3. Multicomponent Permeation in Perfectly Mixed Systems
Example 18-3. Multicomponent, perfectly mixed gas permeation
18.3.4. Effect of Holes in Membrane
18.4.2. Analysis of Reverse Osmosis
18.4.3. RO in Well-Mixed Modules
Example 18-5. Determination of RO membrane properties
Example 18-6. RO without concentration polarization
18.4.4. Mass Transfer Analysis of Concentration Polarization
Example 18-7. RO with concentration polarization
Example 18-8. Prediction of RO performance with concentration polarization
Example 18-9. UF with gel formation
18.6.2. Pervap Design Using Experimental Data
Example 18-10. Pervaporation—feasibility calculation
18.6.3. Theoretical Design of Pervap Systems
Example 18-11. Analysis of pervap data
18.7. Bulk Flow Pattern Effects
Example 18-12. Flow pattern effects in gas permeation
18.7.1. Binary Crossflow Permeation
18.7.2. Binary Cocurrent and Countercurrent Permeation
Appendix. Spreadsheet for Crossflow Gas Permeation
Chapter 19 Introduction to Adsorption, Chromatography, and Ion Exchange
19.1. Sorbents and Sorption Equilibrium
19.1.3. Adsorption Equilibrium Behavior
Example 19-1. Adsorption equilibrium
19.2. Solute Movement Analysis for Linear Systems: Basics and Applications to Chromatography
19.2.1. Movement of Solute in a Column
19.2.2. Solute Movement Theory for Linear Isotherms
19.2.3. Application of Linear Solute Movement Theory to Purge Cycles and Elution Chromatography
Example 19-2. Linear solute movement analysis of elution chromatography
19.3.1. Temperature Swing Adsorption
Example 19-3. Thermal regeneration with linear isotherm
19.3.2. Pressure Swing Adsorption
19.4. Nonlinear Solute Movement Analysis
Example 19-7. Self-sharpening shock wave
19.5.1. Ion Exchange Equilibrium
Example 19-8. Ion movement for divalent-monovalent exchange
19.6. Mass and Energy Transfer in Packed Beds
19.6.1. Mass Transfer and Diffusion
19.6.3. Lumped Parameter Mass Transfer
19.6.4. Energy Balances and Heat Transfer
19.6.5. Derivation of Solute Movement Theory
19.7. Mass Transfer Solutions for Linear Systems
19.7.1. Lapidus and Amundson Solution for Local Equilibrium with Dispersion
19.7.2. Superposition in Linear Systems
Example 19-9. Lapidus and Amundson solution for elution
19.8. LUB Approach for Nonlinear Sorption Systems
19.9. Checklist for Practical Design and Operation
Appendix. Aspen Chromatography Simulator
Appendix A Aspen Plus Troubleshooting Guide for Separations
Appendix B Instructions for Fitting VLE and LLE Data with Aspen Plus