Index
A
Abundance of elements in Earth’s crust, 92
Acetylenes ARP, 159
ACH (air changes per hour), 197
Acid rain
characterization, 140–141
defined, 22–23
Acid rain potentials (ARPs)
for acidifying chemicals, 157
by fuel type, 143–144
Acid Rain Program, 23
Activity-based costing, 128
Administrative agencies creating environmental law, 66–67
Affluence
energy usage and, 28
in IPAT equation, 2
Afterlife of products, processes and systems, 125–126
Agriculture, 12–13
Ahwahnee Principles, 119
AIChE CWRT (American Institute of Chemical Engineers’ Center for Waste Reduction Technologies), 131
Air changes per hour (ACH), 197
Air quality
Clean Air Act. See Clean Air Act (CAA)
indoor, 198
standards. See National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Algae
for biofuels, 169–170
causing dead zones, 179
Alkanes ARP, 158–159
Allen, D.T., 106, 145–146, 201
Allenby, B.R., 98–99
Aluminum recycling, 106–107
American Institute of Chemical Engineers’ Center for Waste Reduction Technologies (AIChE CWRT), 131
American Iron and Steel Institute, 190
Amoco Yorktown refinery, 130
Anthropogenic greenhouse gases, 13. See also Greenhouse gases (GHG)
Anthropogenic repositories, 103–104
Area sources, 19
Aromatics ARP, 159
ARPs (acid rain potentials)
for acidifying chemicals, 157
by fuel type, 143–144
Assessment, life-cycle. See Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
Assessment, risk. See Risk assessment
Augsburg Materials Declaration, 119
Automobile design for sustainability, 117–118
B
BACT (best available control technology)
industrial pretreatment standards, 84
sewage regulation, 70
Batteries
case study of electric vehicle, 201
recycling, 10–12
Behmanesh, N., 106
Benzene, 38–39
Best available control technology (BACT)
industrial pretreatment standards, 84
sewage regulation, 70
Bioaccumulation
environmental risk screening and, 109
using properties to categorize environmental risks of chemicals, 112–113
Biochemical conversion of biomass for biofuels, 170–173
Bioconcentration factor in environmental partitioning, 110–111
Biodiesel
LCA, 173–177
processing routes for, 171–173
Biofuels
life-cycle inventory, 48–50
process-based LCA, 55–56
renewable inputs, 126
Biofuels case studies
carbon cycle, 167–169
cautionary tales, 177–181
feedstocks, 169–170
life cycles, 173–177
processing routes for biomass to biofuels, 170–173
sustainability summary, 181
for transportation, 166–167
Biomass
carbon cycle and biofuels, 167–169
energy usage, 3–4
eutrophication from nutrient runoff and leaching, 178–179
processing routes to biofuels, 170–173
BMEB (Building Mass and Energy Balance) model, 196–198
Boiling point in environmental partitioning, 110–111
Brundtland Commission report, 1, 118
Building Mass and Energy Balance (BMEB)
model, 196–198
Buildings
conclusions on sustainability, 200
design for sustainability, 191–200
energy consumed for, 187–189
materials usage for construction and maintenance, 190
sustainable built environments, 186–187
Business performance, 149
C
CAA (Clean Air Act). See Clean Air Act (CAA)
California Global Warming Solutions Act, 54
Carbon dioxide. See also Greenhouse gases (GHG)
biofuels and carbon cycle, 167–169
global carbon dioxide mass balance, 30–31
in global warming, 17
releases in land use change, 177–178
Carbon monoxide
air pollution, 21
classification, 136
Carbon neutral, 167
Carcinogenic risk, 36–39
Case studies
additional, 201
alternatives for garment transport, 182–184
biofuel cautionary tales, 177–181
biofuel life cycles, 173–177
biofuels for transportation, 166–167
carbon cycle and biofuels, 167–169
conclusions on sustainability of buildings, 200
design of buildings for sustainability, 191–200
energy consumed for building, 187–189
feedstocks for biofuels, 169–170
introduction, 165–166
LCA of garment design, manufacture, and distribution, 182
life cycles, materials use, and transportation of running shoes, 185
materials usage for building construction and maintenance, 190
processing routes for biomass to biofuels, 170–173
references, 201–205
sustainability and logistics, 186
sustainability of biofuels, 181
sustainable built environments, 186–187
transportation, logistics, and supply chains, 181
Cautionary tales of biofuels, 177–181
Cellulosic ethanol, 171–173
Center for Sustainable Engineering, 201
CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), 68, 70, 86–87
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFLBs (compact fluorescent light bulbs), 74
C.F.R. (Code of Federal Regulations), 65
Characterization
acid rain, 140–141
in Clean Air Act, 41
comparing electricity generation by fuel type, 142–144
defined, 135
of environmental performance indicators, 137
global warming, 137–139
human and ecosystem health, 144–146
ozone depletion, 140
of risk, 39
smog formation, 141–142
Chemical manufacturing
costs of pollution abatement, 128–131
regulations, 68–69
separation and purification operations, 123–124
TSCA, 77–78
Chemicals
ARPs for acidifying, 157
categorizing environmental risks of, 112–113
engineering, 165
ODPs for Class I substances, 154–155
ODPs for Class II substances, 156–157
properties involved in risk screening, 108–109
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 120–121
in global warming, 18
midpoint vs. endpoint damages, 134
ODP, 154
ozone depletion, 14–16
Classification
defined, 135
of environmental performance indicators, 136
fuel molecule, 112–113
Clean Air Act (CAA), 22, 81–83
Acid Rain Program, 23
definition of air toxics, 23
Massachusetts v. EPA, 67
ODPs for Class I substances, 154–155
overview, 68–69
programs, 76
risk-based environmental law, 40–43
Supreme Court decision, 76
waste data collection, 25
Clean Water Act (CWA)
environmental law, 83–84
NPDES permits, 66
risk-based environmental law, 41
Cleanup regulations, 86–87
Climate change. See Global warming
Cloth diaper LCA, 52–54
Coal
energy usage, 3–4
options for moving energy, 59
syndiesel LCA, 174–176
Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.), 65
Common law system, 66
Communities
development of engineering solutions, 122
engaging, 150
social performance indicators, 148
Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLBs), 74
Complexity as investment, 124
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 68, 70, 86–87
Conservation
energy, 5–8
of natural ecosystems, 120–121
Construction, 190
Consumer Product Safety Commission, 43
Consumers, 148
Consumption
energy for buildings, 187–189
water, 12–13
of water in biomass production, 179, 181
Copper recycling, 105–106
Corn
ethanol production, 171–173
life-cycle inventory, 48–50
process-based LCA, 55–56
Cost-benefit analysis of Clean Air Act, 41–42
Costs
economic performance indicators. See Economic performance indicators
estimates of environmental, 128–131
framework for evaluating, 131–133
material extraction and refinement, 95–99
Courts creating environmental law, 66–67
Criteria air pollutants, 19–20, 25
Critical dilution volume, 145
Crude oil production
environmental costs, 130–131
life-cycle inventory, 50–51
Crustal abundance of materials, 92–99
Crutzen, Paul, 14–15
Cup life cycle, 58
CWA (Clean Water Act). See Clean Water Act (CWA)
D
DDGS (dry distiller grain solids), 171
Deepwater Horizon oil rig blowout, 25
Definitions
economic performance, 127–128
risk, 35–39
Deforestation, 177–178
Demographic risks, 37
Demographics, 147
Demonstrated reserves, 97–98
Department of Agriculture, 43
Department of Energy (DOE)
Buildings Energy Software Tools Directory, 196
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy program, 187
materials ranking, 114
Department of Labor, 43
Department of Transportation, 43
Design for Environment labeling, 114
Design for sustainability
ARPs for acidifying chemicals, 157
buildings, 191–200
economic performance indicators. See Economic performance indicators
environmental performance indicators. See Environmental performance indicators
garment LCA, 182
GWPs for greenhouse gases, 151–153
introduction, 117–118
MIR for smog formation, 158–159
ODPs for Class I substances, 154–155
ODPs for Class II substances, 156–157
principles, 118–126
problems, 149–150
references, 160–163
social performance indicators, 146–149
summary, 149
Diesel, Rudolf, 166
Direct land use change, 177–178
Direct release to environment, 73–74
Dispersion, 108–109
Disposable diaper LCA, 52–54
Distribution of garments, 182
DOE (Department of Energy). See Department of Energy (DOE)
Dose response
in Clean Air Act, 41
in risk assessment framework, 39
Dredge materials permitting, 84
Dry distiller grain solids (DDGS), 171
Durability
vs. efficiency improvements, 58
material flows, 103
targeted as design goal, 124–125
E
Earth Charter Principles, 119
Earth’s crust, 92–99
Economic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA)
defined, 57
problem, 60–61
Economic performance indicators
definitions, 127–128
estimates of environmental costs, 128–131
framework for evaluating environmental costs, 131–133
overview, 126–127
Economics
input-output LCA, 56–57
of material extraction and refinement, 95–99
Ecosystems
conserving and improving, 120–121
environmental performance indicators, 144–146
Education, 147
Efficiency
designing to maximize, 124
vs. durability improvements, 58
of energy sources, 5–8
LEED rating system, 191–192
preventing waste, 121–122
problems, 28
Ehrlich, P., 2
EIO-LCA (economic input-output life-cycle assessment)
defined, 57
problem, 60–61
EISA (Energy Independence and Security Act), 54, 166, 178
Electric vehicles
case study, 201
effect on fuel production, 31
Electricity
in buildings, 187–188
comparing by fuel type, 142–144
global warming emissions from, 150
water usage in generation, 12–13
Elements in earth’s crust, 91–99
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)
environmental law, 87–88
waste data collection, 25
Emissions
assessing fuel/biofuel impacts, 175–177
classification, 136
Clean Air Act, 81–83
environmental impacts, 13
estimate of environmental costs, 128–129
evolution of regulations, 72–73
global warming, 16–17
GWP, 137–139
laws regulating, 69–70
life-cycle based environmental law, 54–55
ozone depletion, 14–16
regional and local air quality, 17–24
resulting from land use change, 177–178
wastes in the United States, 25–27
water quality, 24–25
Endpoint environmental performance indicators, 133–135
Energy
burdens of material recovery, 96–97
consumed for buildings, 187–189
designing to maximize efficiency, 124
ensuring nonhazardous inputs/outputs, 123
introduction to sustainability, 3–8
LEED rating system, 191–192
minimizing consumption in separation and purification operations, 123–124
options for moving, 59
renewable inputs, 126
savings due to recycling, 106–107
Energy balance simulation, 196–198
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy program, 187
Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), 54, 166, 178
Energy usage
in logistics. See Logistics case studies
problems, 28
reduction, 72
EnergyPlus, 187
Enforcement
CERCLA, 87
Clean Air Act, 82–83
CWA, 84
EPCRA, 88
FIFRA, 79
OSH Act, 80
RCRA, 86
TSCA, 78
case studies, 165–166
design for sustainability. See Design for sustainability
environmental law and, 65–66
recycling through design, 74
sustainability challenges, 2–3, 27–28
sustainable materials, 91
tracking material flows, 99–107
Entropy as investment, 124
Environmental impacts. See Impacts
Environmental law
based on life-cycle frameworks, 54–55
based on risk assessment, 43
based on risk frameworks, 40–42
Clean Air Act, 81–83
Clean Water Act, 83–84
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 86–87
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, 87–88
evolution of programs, 72–73
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 78–79
introduction, 65–68
nine prominent federal statutes, 68–72
Occupational Safety and Health Act, 79–80
Pollution Prevention Act, 88
pollution prevention concepts and terminology, 73–74
potency factors based on, 145
problems, 75–77
references, 89
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 84–86
sustainability and, 74–75
Toxic Substances Control Act, 77–78
The Environmental Law Handbook (Sullivan and Adams), 65
Environmental Law Statutes (West Law School), 65
Environmental partitioning, 109–111
Environmental performance indicators
acid rain, 140–141
characterization, 137
classification, 136
comparing electricity generation by fuel type, 142–144
global warming, 137–139
human and ecosystem health, 144–146
life-cycle impact assessment, 135–136
overview, 133–135
ozone depletion, 140
smog formation, 141–142
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Acid Rain Program, 23
environmental law. See Environmental law
establishment of, 67
key statutes, 69–71
Report on the Environment, 13
risk-based environmental law, 41–42, 43
waste data collection, 25–27
Environmental regulations, 66. See also Environmental law
Environmental releases
material flow analysis, 100
of materials, 107–113
Environmental risks, 36. See also Risk frameworks for sustainability
EP (exposure potential), 137
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Equations
ARP, 140–141
carbon cycle and biofuels, 167
carcinogenic risk near petroleum factory, 38–39
comparing electricity generation by fuel type, 142–144
cup life cycle, 58
dimensionless environmental risk index, 137
energy burdens of material recovery, 96–97
environmental risk, 36
evaluating chemical partitioning, exposure and persistence, 111–112
global warming index, 137–139
IPAT equation, 2
ODP, 140
ratio of crustal abundance to reserves, 93–95
refrigerant GWP and ODP, 199
smog formation assessment, 141–142
Ethanol, 170–173. See also Biofuels
iron, 103
material flow analysis, 100
Exposure
assessment, 39
assessment in Clean Air Act, 41
defining risk, 36–39
using property estimates to evaluate, 109–111
Exposure potential (EP), 137
External costs, 127
Extracting materials, 91–99
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 25
F
Federal environmental statues
overview of key nine, 68–72
problem, 76
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
environmental law, 78–79
overview, 68–69
Worker Protection Standard, 76
Federal Register, 67
Feedstocks
for biofuels, 169–170
water usage in biofuel production, 179, 181
Fermentation of biomass for biofuels, 170–173
Fertilizer runoff, 178–179, 180
FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act)
Worker Protection Standard, 76
Fill material permitting, 84
Final Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Rule, 82
Flows
designing to interconnectivity and integration with energy and material, 125
tracking material in engineered systems, 99–107
Fluorescent bulbs
LCA, 45–48
recycling, 74
replacing T12 with T8, 193–196
Fluorinated ether GWPs, 152–153
Footprints for material extraction and refining, 91–99
Forest products
as biomass for biofuels. See Wood biomass
usage in building construction, 190
Formulas. See Equations
Fossil fuels
vs. biofuels, 167–169
cause of global warming, 16–17
energy usage, 3–4
Frameworks for sustainability
evaluating environmental costs, 131–133
life-cycle. See Life-cycle frameworks for sustainability risk. See Risk frameworks for sustainability
Freight transportation
functional units, 60
garment LCA, 184
Freshwater quality, 24–25
Fuels
building consumption, 188
classifying, 112–113
comparing electricity generation, 142–144
design for sustainability, 117–118
environmental fate of gasoline substitutes, 115
petroleum. See Petroleum
Full-cost accounting, 128
Functional units
determining LCA, 47–48
high-efficiency lighting, 193
problems, 59–60
Future generations, 148
G
Garments case study
alternatives for transport, 182–184
design, manufacture, and distribution LCA, 182
Gasoline
biofuels as substitute, 172
environmental fate of substitutes, 115
Generator RCRA regulations, 85
Geopolitics, 103
GHG (greenhouse gases). See Greenhouse gases (GHG)
Glass production, 136
Global energy balance, 29–30
Global energy usage, 3–8
Global materials usage
iron, 102–106
overview, 8–13
Global warming
assessing fuel/biofuel impacts, 175–177
characterization, 137–139
emissions from electricity, 150
overview, 16–17
reduction with biofuels, 168–169
Global warming potentials (GWPs)
defined, 137–139
by fuel type, 143
for greenhouse gases, 151–153
high-efficiency lighting, 193
refrigerant, 199
Gold, 97–98
Governance, 147
Greadel, T.E., 98–99
Green diesel
LCA, 173–177
processing routes for, 170–173
Green Engineering: Environmentally Conscious Design of Chemical Processes (Allen and Shonnard), 65, 120, 122
Green Engineering principles 12 Principles of Green Engineering, 122–126
Sandestin, 119–122
Green job hazards, 76
Green Lights Program, 45–46
Green materials. See Sustainable materials
Green products, 114
Greenhouse effect, 16
Greenhouse gases (GHG). See also Emissions
assessing fuel/biofuel impacts, 175–177
CAA regulations, 82
causing global warming, 16–17
global warming contribution, 18
high-efficiency lighting LCA, 193–195
life-cycle based environmental law, 54–55
potential pollution control costs, 129
reduction with biofuels, 167–169
releases in land use change, 177–178
Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) Model
defined, 56
estimating GHG emissions, 175, 177
Grocery sack LCA, 47–48
GWPs (global warming potentials). See Global warming potentials (GWPs)
H
Hannover Principles, 118–119
HAPs (hazardous air pollutants)
CAA regulations, 82
defined, 23–24
Harry’s law constant, 110–111
Hazard assessment
in Clean Air Act, 41
references, 61
Hazard Communication Standard
defined, 80
of OSHA, 69
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
CAA regulations, 82
defined, 23–24
Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA), 84–86
Hazardous substance regulations, 84
Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB), 61
Hazardous waste
CERCLA regulations, 86–87
RCRA, 84–86
recovering materials, 105
regulations, 70
in the U.S., 26–27
HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
GWPs, 152
ozone depletion, 15
Health. See Human health
Health risks. See Risk frameworks for sustainability
Heating
energy balance simulation, 196–197
energy consumed by buildings, 187–189
High-efficiency lighting, 193–196
Holdren, J., 2
Hopkins, L., 201
HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank), 61
HSWA (Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments), 84–86
characterization, 144–146
conserving and improving ecosystems while protecting, 120–121
effects of air pollution, 19–24
environmental risk screening, 108–109
OSH Act workplace standards, 80
social performance indicators, 147
Hybrid cars, 114
Hybrid LCA tools, 57
Hydrocarbons
air pollution, 20–21
defined, 13
GWP, 153
upgrading bio-oils, 172
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
GWP, 152
ozone depletion, 15
Hypoxia, 180
I
Identification of hazardous waste, 85
IIP (inherent impact potential), 137
Image costs, 133
Impacts
characterization. See Characterization
of energy usage, 8
in IPAT equation, 2
life-cycle impact assessment, 51–52
scores, 137
on social sustainability indicators, 146–147
Imports
iron, 103
material flow analysis, 100
Improvement analysis, 52–54
In-process recycling, 73
Incandescent bulb LCA, 45–48
Incremental reactivity (IR), 141–142
Indirect costs, 127
Indirect discharge sources, 84
Indirect global warming potentials (GWPs), 138–139
Indirect land use change, 177–178
Indoor Environmental Quality, 191–192
Industrial pretreatment standards, 84
Industrial wastes in the U.S., 25–27
Inferred reserves, 97–98
Inherent impact potential (IIP), 137
Innovation in Design, 191–192
Inputs
classification, 136
ensuring nonhazardous, 123
ensuring safety of, 121
high-efficiency lighting, 193–194
input-output LCA, 56–57
input pushing, 124
life-cycle inventory, 48–51
material flow analysis, 100
renewable, 126
Inspection
CWA requirements, 84
OSH Act requirements, 80
Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), 61
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
carbon dioxide concentrations, 168–169
on global warming, 16
GWP estimates, 138
Internal costs, 127
International community, 148
International environmental regulation, 74–75
International Standards Organization (ISO), 44
International trade, 32
Interpretation step of LCA, 52–54, 55
Involuntary risks
exposure, 36
problem, 57
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
carbon dioxide concentrations, 168–169
on global warming, 16
GWP estimates, 138
IR (incremental reactivity), 141–142
IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System), 61
Iron
material flow analysis, 102–106
usage in building construction, 190
ISO (International Standards Organization), 44
J
Johnson, J.E., 96
“just-in-time” manufacturing, 124
K
Kates, R.W., 147
Kimbrough, D.E., 201
L
Labeling
Design for Environment, 114
of pesticides, 79
Land use in biofuel production, 177–178
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 5–6
Laws, environmental. See Environmental law
LCA (life-cycle assessment). See Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
LCI (Life Cycle Inventory) Database, 56
Le Châtelier’s principle, 124
Lead
air pollution, 21–22
material flow analysis, 100–102
recycling, 10–12
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system
defined, 191–192
refrigerants, 199
sustainable building sites, 199–200
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 195–196
Legislation. See Environmental law
Legislatures creating environmental law, 66–67
Liability
costs, 132
hazardous waste regulations, 70
PRP, 87
Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
biofuel, 173–177
determining scope/boundaries, 44–48
environmental performance indicators, 133–134
of garment design, manufacture, and distribution, 182
high-efficiency lighting, 193–196
integrating social sustainability, 148–149
interpretation step, 52–54
life-cycle impact assessment, 51–52
life-cycle inventory, 48–51
problems, 59–60
running shoe, 185
tools, 55–57
Life-cycle frameworks for sustainability
assessment tools, 55–57
design problem, 150
determining scope/boundaries, 44–48
environmental law, 54–55
interpretation, 52–54
life-cycle impact assessment, 51–52
life-cycle inventory, 48–51
problems, 58–61
references, 62–63
summary, 57
use in engineering activities, 121
Life-cycle impact assessment
defined, 51–52
environmental performance indicators, 135–136
for transportation fuels, 55
Life-cycle inventories
defined, 48–51
for greenhouse gas emissions, 55
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Database, 56
Life cycles
costing, 128
tracking material, 99–107
Lifestyle risks, 37
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 195–196
Lighting
energy efficiency in, 28
high-efficiency, 193–196
light bulb LCA, 45–48
Listing hazardous waste, 85
Local community, 148
Logistics case studies
alternatives for garment transport, 182–184
LCA of garment design, manufacture, and distribution, 182
life cycles, materials use, and transportation of running shoes, 185
sustainability and logistics, 186
transportation and supply chains, 181
Love Canal, 86
Lurmann, F.W., 57–58
M
MACT (Maximum Achievable Control Technology)
defined, 23
of HAPs, 82
Maintenance, building, 190
Manufacturing
buildings, 190
chemicals. See Chemical manufacturing
garment LCA, 182
“just-in-time”, 124
photovoltaic materials usage, 114
PMNs. See Premanufacture Notices (PMNs)
Marginal reserves, 97–98
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), 61, 69, 80
Materials
for building construction and maintenance, 190
ensuring inputs and outputs are safe, 121
green and sustainable. See Sustainable materials
high-efficiency lighting, 193–194
impact of building, 198–199
LEED rating system, 191–192
minimizing diversity in multicomponent products, 125
minimizing in separation and purification operations, 123–124
overview of, 8–13
renewable inputs, 126
running shoe, 185
waste as, 150
Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT)
defined, 23
of HAPs, 82
Maximum incremental reactivity (MIR)
defined, 142
for smog formation, 158–159
McElvey diagram for gold, 97–98
Media-shifting of pollutants, 72–73
Medications, 115
Melting point in environmental partitioning, 110–111
Metals
overview of usage, 8–12
usage in building construction, 190
Methane, 17. See also Greenhouse gases (GHG)
Methanol, 171
Methyl isocyanate, 87
Methyl-tert butyl ether (MTBE)
classifying fuel molecules, 112–113
environmental fate of gasoline substitutes, 115
shifting risk, 120
Midpoint environmental performance indicators, 133–135
Millennium Development Goals, 147
Minerals usage, 8–10
Mining Minerals Sustainable Development North America project, 122
Mining waste streams, 105–107
MIR (maximum incremental reactivity)
defined, 142
for smog formation, 158–159
Mississippi River basin, 180
Molina, Mario, 14–15
Monitoring requirements in CWA, 84
Montreal Protocol, 15, 151–152
MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet), 61, 69, 80
MTBE (methyl-tert butyl ether)
classifying fuel molecules, 112–113
environmental fate of gasoline substitutes, 115
shifting risk, 120
N
NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards). See National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
National Air Quality Emission Trends Report (U.S. EPA), 19–20
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Clean Air Act, 69
defined, 19–20
establishment of, 81
risk assessment problem, 57–58
as risk-based law, 40
National community, 148
National Hazardous Waste Biennial Report (RCRA), 77
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, 61
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 192
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
defined, 66
key environmental statutes, 70
overview, 83
problem, 76–77
National Priority List (NPL)
defined, 70
overview, 86–87
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 56
National Research Council (NRC), 39–40
Natural disasters, 36
Natural gas
building consumption, 188
syndiesel LCA, 173–177
Natural hazards, 147
Natural lighting, 195–196
Natural resources
materials. See Materials
minimizing depletion, 121
problem, 150
sustainability, 1
usage in building construction, 190
New source performance standards (NSPS), 81–82
New Source Review Program, 82
Next-generation products, 125–126
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, 61
NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology), 192
Nitrogen oxides
acid deposition, 22–23
air pollution, 20–21
classification, 136
in global warming, 17
smog formation assessment, 141–142
Nixon, President Richard, 67
Nobel Prize for chemistry, 14
Non-hazardous solid waste, 25–26
Non-point sources of water pollution, 24
Nonrenewable energy, 3–4
NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System) permits. See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
NPL (National Priority List)
defined, 70
overview, 86–87
NRC (National Research Council), 39–40
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory), 56
NSPS (new source performance standards), 81–82
Nuclear energy, 3–4
O
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), 68–69, 79–80
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
environmental law, 69
green job hazards, 76
Octanol-water partition coefficient in environmental partitioning, 110–111
ODPs (ozone depletion potentials). See Ozone depletion potentials (ODPs)
Off-site recycling, 73–74
Oil spills, 84
On-site recycling, 73–74
Organics usage, 8–10
OSH Act (Occupational Safety and Health Act), 68–69, 79–80
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)
environmental law, 69
green job hazards, 76
Outputs
classification, 136
ensuring nonhazardous, 123
ensuring safety of, 121
input-output LCA, 56–57
life-cycle inventory, 48–51
material flow analysis, 100
output pulling, 124
Overdesigned products, 125
Overhead
defined, 127
environmental costs charged to, 132
Ozone
air pollution, 20–21
in global warming, 18
in smog formation, 141
Ozone depletion
characterization, 140
international law, 75
overview, 14–16
Ozone depletion potentials (ODPs)
for Class I substances, 154–155
for Class II substances, 156–157
defined, 140
refrigerant, 199
P
Paper grocery sack LCA, 47–48
Parris, T.M., 147
Particulate matter (PM), 22
Partitioning, environmental, 109–111
Patty’s Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 61
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 69
Perfluorinated compounds, 152
Perfluoropolyethers, 153
Performance indicators, economic. See Economic performance indicators
Performance indicators, environmental. See Environmental performance indicators
Performance indicators, social, 146–149
Permits
air emission, 70
CAA, 81–82
NPDES. See National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
Persistence
environmental risk screening and, 108–109
using properties to categorize environmental risks of chemicals, 112–113
using property estimates to evaluate, 109–111
Personal mobility
functional unit in LCA, 59–60
problem, 150
Pesticides
registration, 78–79
regulations, 69
Petroleum
vs. biofuels LCA, 173–177
carcinogenic risk near factory, 36–39
costs of pollution abatement, 128–129
energy usage, 3–4
life-cycle based environmental law, 54–55
Photochemical smog, 19
Photovoltaic manufacturing, 114
Plastic grocery sack LCA, 47–48
PM (particulate matter), 22
PMNs (Premanufacture Notices). See Premanufacture Notices (PMNs)
Point sources of water pollution, 24
Pollution
from biomass growth, 178–179
costs of abatement, 128–129
economic aspects of abatement, 26
key regulations, 68–71
prevention concepts and terminology, 73–74
risks associated with, 37
smog formation assessment, 141–142
water, 24–25
Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)
environmental law, 88
environmental management hierarchy, 73–74
Pollution Prevention: Homework and Design Problems for Engineering Curricula (American Institute of Chemical Engineers), 201
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 69
Polyethylene production, 136
Population, 2
Potency factors
defined, 137
human and ecosystem health indicators, 145–146
Potentially responsible parties (PRPs)
CERCLA liability, 87
defined, 70
POTW (Publicly Owned Treatment Works) construction program, 83
Poverty, 147
Power. See Electricity
PPA (Pollution Prevention Act). See Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)
Premanufacture Notices (PMNs)
defined, 69
estimated risks of releases, 108–109
new chemical review, 78
problem, 76
Primary pollutants, 19
Primary treatment, 83
Principles of Green Engineering, 119, 122–126
case studies, 165–166
overview, 118–126
Private costs, 127
Process-based life-cycle assessments, 55–56
Processes
12 Green Engineering principles, 124–126
holistic engineering, 120
life-cycle assessment. See Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
life cycles, 44
Processing routes for biomass to biofuels, 170–173
Products
12 Green Engineering principles, 124–126
durability vs. efficiency improvements, 58
holistic engineering, 120
life-cycle assessment. See Life-cycle assessment (LCA)
life cycles, 44
PRPs (potentially responsible parties)
CERCLA liability, 87
defined, 70
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) construction program, 83
Purification operations, 123–124
R
Rare earth elements
in hybrid cars, 114
McElvey diagram, 98
Rating system for buildings, 191–192
RCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Reactive organic gases (ROG), 141–142
Record-keeping
CWA requirements, 84
OSH Act requirements, 80
Recycling
considering product life cycles, 44
designing for commercial afterlife, 125–126
in material flow analysis, 100–107
of materials, 10–12
minimizing material diversity, 125
viewing entropy and complexity as investments, 124
waste management hierarchy, 73–74
Refining materials, 91–99
Refrigerants, 199. See also Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Regional air quality, 17, 19–24
Regional Priority, 191–192
Registration of pesticides, 78–79
Regulations. See Environmental law
Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIA), 178
Relationship costs, 133
Releases
emission. See Emissions
laws governing. See Environmental law
material flow analysis, 100
sustainable materials, 107–113
Renewable energy
biofuels. See Biofuels
defined, 3–4
Renewable Fuel Standard, 167, 178
Report on the Environment (EPA), 13, 24
Reserves of materials
crustal abundance and, 93–94
definitions and supplies, 97–99
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
environmental law, 84–86
National Hazardous Waste Biennial Report, 77
waste and, 25
Reuse, 124
RIA (Regulatory Impact Assessment), 178
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 74
Risk assessment
of environmental releases, 108–113
overview, 39–40
using chemical properties, 112–113
Risk characterization. See Characterization
Risk frameworks for sustainability
assessment, 39–40
definitions, 35–39
environmental law, 40–42
hazard references, 61
problems, 57–58
references, 62–63
summary, 57
Risk management
in Clean Air Act, 41–42
defined, 40
Risk shifting
defined, 120
problem, 150
ROG (reactive organic gases), 141–142
Rosselot, K.S., 145–146
Rowland, Sherwood, 14–15
Rule making, 67
Running shoe life cycles, materials use, and transportation, 185
S
Safety. See Risk frameworks for sustainability
Sandestin Green Engineering Principles, 119–122
SARA (Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act)
CERCLA and, 86
key statutes, 70–71
waste management, 25
Scarcity, 92
Secondary pollutants, 19
Secondary treatment, 83
Section 812 of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, 41–42
Secure disposal, 73–74
Separation operations, 123–124
SETAC (Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry), 44
Seven Questions to Sustainability, 122
Sewage regulation, 83–84
SFPs (smog formation potentials)
defined, 142
by fuel type, 144
Sherwood relationship, 96
Sherwood, T., 96
Shipping garments, 181–184
Silver, 201
SIPs (state implementation plans), 81
Smog formation
characterization, 141–142
maximum incremental reactivities for, 158–159
Smog formation potentials (SFPs)
defined, 142
by fuel type, 144
Social performance indicators, 146–149
Societal context of engineering design, 122
Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), 44
Soil sorption coefficient in environmental partitioning, 110–111
Solvents, 201
Source reduction, 73
Stakeholders
engaging in development of engineering solutions, 122
social sustainability, 148
State implementation plans (SIPs), 81
Statutes. See Environmental law
Steel usage, 190
Steele, N., 201
Stefan-Boltzman Law, 29–30
Storage of hazardous waster, 85–86
Stratosphere, 14–16
Subeconomic reserves, 97–98
Sulfur oxides
air pollution, 22–23
classification, 136
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
CERCLA and, 86
key statutes, 70–71
waste management, 25
Superfund sites, 76
Supply chains
alternatives for garment transport, 182–184
case studies, 181
garment design, manufacture, and distribution LCA, 182
life cycles, materials use, and transportation of running shoes, 185–186
sustainability and logistics, 186
Supreme Court
Massachusetts v. EPA, 67
Sustainability
of buildings. See Buildings
challenges, 2–3
defined, 1–2
design for. See Design for sustainability
energy, 3–8
environmental emissions. See Emissions
environmental law and, 74–75
life-cycle frameworks for sustainability. See Life-cycle frameworks for sustainability
logistics and, 186
materials usage, 8–13
problems, 28–32
references, 32–34
reports, 149
risk frameworks. See Risk frameworks for sustainability
summary, 27–28
Sustainable Engineering Principles, 119
Sustainable materials
ensuring inputs and outputs are safe, 121
ensuring nonhazardous inputs/outputs, 123
environmental and natural resource use footprints, 91–99
environmental releases, 107–113
introduction, 91
problems, 114–115
references, 115–116
summary, 114
tracking flows in engineered systems, 99–107
Sustainable Sites, 191–192
“Swimmable” goal, 83
Synthesis diesel LCA, 173–176
System boundaries
determining LCA, 44–47
high-efficiency lighting, 193
issues in LCA tools, 56
of material flow analysis, 100
shoe LCA, 185
Systems Green Engineering principles, 124–126
T
T12 vs. T8 lighting systems, 193–196
Targeted durability, 124–125
Technology
in Clean Water Act, 41
creating new solutions, 122
in IPAT equation, 2
Sherwood relationship and, 96
Testing chemicals, 77–78
Thermochemical conversion of biomass for biofuels, 170–173
Tier framework of environmental costs, 131–133
Total cost assessment, 128
Total Cost Assessment Methodology, 131–133
Toxic Chemical Release Inventory (TRI), 27
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 68–69, 76, 77–78
Toxicity
determining hazard, 36
environmental risk screening and, 108–109
human and ecosystem health indicators, 144–146
Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, Fifth Edition (Casarett and Doull), 61
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), 72, 87–88
Toxnet, 61
TRACI method, 144–145
Tracking material flows in engineered systems, 99–107
Transportation
additional case studies, 201
alternatives for garment transport, 182–184
of biomass for fuel, 170
design for sustainability, 117–118
functional units, 59–60
hazardous waste requirements, 85
logistics and supply chain case studies, 181
options for moving energy, 59
running shoe, 185
sustainable building sites and, 199–200
Transportation fuels
biofuels for, 166–167
life-cycle based environmental law, 54–55
Treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs), 85–86
TRI (Toxic Chemical Release Inventory), 27
Tropospheric ozone
air pollution, 20–21
defined, 14
in global warming, 18
True costs, 128
TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act), 68–69, 76, 77–78
Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry, 119
Twelve Principles of Green Engineering, 119, 122–126
U
UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development), 74
Uniform Hazardous Waste Manifest, 85
United Nations
environmental law, 74–75
on metals recycling, 106–107
social performance indicators, 147
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), 74
United States, 26
biofuel usage in, 166
Department of Energy. See Department of Energy (DOE)
energy usage, 3–7
EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
materials usage, 8–13
waste, 25–27
United States Code (U.S.C.), 65
Unreasonable harm, 79
U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 191–192
V
Valuation, 135
Value retention, 125
Vapor pressure in environmental partitioning, 110–111
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
air pollution, 20–21
smog formation assessment, 141–142, 144
Voluntary exposure, 36
Voluntary risks, 57
W
Waste
as biomass for biofuels, 169–170
costs of disposal, 130–131, 132
international trade in, 32
prevention, 123
as raw materials, 150
RCRA, 84–86
regulations, 70
striving to prevent, 121–122
in the United States, 25–27
Waste management hierarchy
defined, 73–74
PPA, 88
problems, 75–76
Water
Clean Water Act. See Clean Water Act (CWA)
quality and emissions, 24–25
rating building efficiency, 191–192
solubility in environmental partitioning, 110–111
usage, 12–13
usage in building construction, 190
use in biomass production, 179, 181
Wind turbines, 114
Withdrawals
defined, 12–13
of water in biomass production, 179, 181
Wood biomass
for biofuels, 169–170
processing routes to biofuels, 170–172
syndiesel LCA, 173–177
Worker Protection Standard, 76, 79
Workplace Health and Safety Standards, 80
World Commission on Environment and Development, 1
World energy usage, 3–8
Z
“Zero discharge” goal, 83
Zinc recycling, 105–106