ABSL (Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language), 32, 123, 230n30
adolescence, 202
African exodus, 210
Alexander, Richard D., 194
American Sign Language (ASL), 31, 47, 59, 64, 66, 119, 123
anatomical changes, and origin of speech, 72–74
Anaxagoras, 248n24
animal communication, 17, 19–20, 34, 36–54
animal rights movement, 152
animals: and autism, 138–39; and comprehension of human speech, 44–46; and language, 154; and mental time travel, 154; and recursion, 51–54, 227n10, 227n12; and repetition, 10; and selfawareness, 148–49; and theory of mind, 144–48, 154. See also names of species
animal vocalizations, 36–37; emotional, 38; as signal to distinguish species, 38; voluntary control of, 38–39
animal welfare legislation, 152
antidecompositionalism, 230n38
antipsychiatry movement, 243n23
ape-hominin split, 55, 71, 102, 164, 181–83, 189, 191, 198, 231n9, 247n4
apes. See names of species; primates
Apollonian gasket, 4
Apollonius, 4
Ardipithecus ramidus, 183–84, 185
arms race, 190
Armstrong, David F., Gesture and the Nature of Language (with Stokoe and Wilcox), 59
aspect, verbal, 241n10
Asperger’s syndrome, 139, 143, 161, 243n18
Austen, Jane, Pride and Prejudice, 159
australopithecines, 183
Australopithecus afarensis, 183, 189, 198
Australopithecus sediba, 192
autism, 138, 143, 158, 160, 244n27
autistic-psychotic spectrum, 140–44
autistic spectrum disorder, 160
autonoetic awareness, 85
Aymara, 119
Ayurveda, 110
Baldwin, James Arthur, 81
Barkow, Jerome, The Adaptive Mind (with Cosmides and Tooby), 12
Baron-Cohen, Simon, 138, 140, 142
Barth, John: Autobiography: A Self-recorded Fiction, 3; Frame-Tale, 2
Bartlett, Sir Frederic C., 240n9
Bass, Ellen, The Courage to Heal (with Davis), 95
bats, 154
Beck, Benjamin B., 205
Beckett, Samuel, What is the word?, 158
Bellugi, Ursula, 59
Bernheim, Hippolyte, 94
Beyerstein, Barry L., 225
Bickerton, Derek, 48–49, 56, 234n2
Bierce, Ambrose, 1
big bang theory of language evolution, 56, 167, 230n30, 233n56
Bingham, Paul, 190
Bininj Gun-Wok, 27
biological stance, 148
bipedal hominins, 182
bipedalism, 63, 183–91, 247n12, 248n20; facultative vs. obligate, 183; hand-assisted, 184; and language, 191; negative aspects of, 186
birds: and counting, 227n12; and memory feats, 154; migratory, 154; and recursion, 52–54, 227n10; and tactical deception, 147–48; and tool use, 105–6, 250n83; and vocal learning, 39–42; and www memory, 103–4. See also names of species
birdsong, repetitive nature of, 10
Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, 105
Bloom, Paul, 28, 56; Descartes’ Baby, 172
Boë, L.-J., 237n77
bonobos, 181, 232n30; comprehension of human speech, 44–45; and gesture, 50–51; and mental time travel, 106; as quadrupeds, 183–84; and signed language, 47–48; and speech, 43–44; and tactical deception, 148; and tool use, 240n25; use of signs, 163
Botswana, 76
Bougainville Island, 27
Boyd, Brian, 125
brain, human, 249n66; Broca’s area, 60, 61, 71; Brodman area 44, 60; cheaterdetection module, 136; development of, 196–200; evolution of, 142; hippocampus, 85–86, 88, 176–77, 239n11; hippocampus minor, 176–77; motor cortex, 61; prefrontal cortex, 200; Wernicke’s area, 61
brain activation: fMRI scans of, 101; and memory retrieval, 238n7; in schizophrenia and autism, 244n27
British Sign Language, 69
Bronowski, Jacob, 188
Brown, Dan, Da Vinci Code, 227n6
Buin, Uisia dialect of, 27
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward, 2
Burianova, H., 238n7
Burling, Robbins, 67
Byrne, Richard, 50, 148; The Thinking Ape, 147
Calvin, William H., The Throwing Madonna, 187
canine intelligence, 232n36, 244n45
capuchin monkeys, 189
Carey, Susan, 244n49
catastrophes, 222
center-embedding, 28, 52–53, 229n5
Chamberlain, Lindy, 186
Chase, Stuart, Tyranny of Words, 151
Chater, Nick, 34
Chauvet Cave, 214
cheater-detection module, 136
childhood: as crucible of recursive mind, 202; and emergence of grammatical language, 201; and theory of mind, 201
childhood stage, 202
children, and protolanguage, 48–49. See also infants
chimpanzee culture, 49–50, 252n35
chimpanzees, 154, 177, 181, 185, 229n32, 231n9, 232n30, 232n33, 232n35; calls of, 37–38; and counting, 245n7; and displaced reference, 117; evolution of, 247n4, 247n10; and gesture, 50–51, 162–65; hand of, 188–89; and imitation, 49; and mirror test, 149; and problem solving, 49–50; as quadrupeds, 183–84; and signed language, 47; and speech, 43–44; survival of, 170; and symbolic representation, 116; and tactical deception, 148; and theory of mind, 145–47, 150, 243n12; and throwing, 189; and tools, 106, 204–5
Chomsky, Noam, 7–8, 20, 34–35, 51–52, 121, 151, 180, 212, 225–26, 227n13; and linguistic diversity, 29; and Prometheus, 56; view of language, 23–25, 55
Christiansen, Morten, 34
Clayton, Nicola, 103
Clever Hans, 42
Clifford, Paul, 2
CMAH (CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac) hydroxylase), 249n59
cognitive arms race, 136
cognitive fluidity, 14
cognitive linguistics, 155
cognitive niche, 194
combinatorial rules, 124
concatenation, of phrases, 30
conceptual-intentional system, 51
Condillac, Abbé Étienne Bonnot de, 57–58
conditioning: classical, 96–97, 240n32; operant, 97–98
conventionalization, 64, 66–67
core network, 101
Cosmides, Leda, 13; The Adaptive Mind (with Barkow and Tooby), 12
counting, 223, 227n12; birds and, 227n12; chimpanzees and, 245n7; as human ability, 8
Cox, Nigel, Tarzan Presley, 231n12
creativity, and psychosis, 142–44
cricket (game), 248n17, 248n21, 248n22
Critchley, MacDonald, The Language of Gesture, 59
crocodiles, 249n47
crosswords, 246n22
cultural diversity, 218
Damasio, Hanna, 249n66
Darwin, Charles, 58, 77, 144, 186–87, 189, 216, 221; The Descent of Man in Relation to Sex, 19, 173; Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 133–34; On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 173
Davis, Laura, The Courage to Heal (with Bass), 95
Davis, Percival, Of Pandas and People (with Kenyon), 174
Deacon, Terrence, 116, 249n66; The Symbolic Species, 41, 178
death, human understanding of, 108–9
de Morgan, Augustus, 3
Descartes, René, 1, 107, 132, 171–73, 176
De Villiers, Jill, 246n33
de Waal, Franz B. M., 144; Chimpanzee Politics, 243n12
Diamond, Jared, 220; Guns, Germs, and Steel, 218
discrete infinity, 8
displacement: human infants and, 117; use of term, 81
DNA hybridization, 183
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 174
dogs: and comprehension of human speech, 44; domestication of, 232n36; intelligence of, 232n36, 244n45; Pavlov’s experiments with, 97; and telepathy, 42; and theory of mind, 147
Donald, Merlin, Origin of the Human Mind, 63
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 159
dualism, innate, 171–73, 246n6
duality of patterning: and ABSL, 32; and Hockett, 32
ebola haemorrhagic fever, 170
echolocation, in bats, 154
Edinburgh, University of, Koestler Parapsychology Unit, 132
E-language, 7, 23–24, 29, 151; and natural selection, 55–56
Elizabeth, Princess of Palatine, 171–72
ELIZA computer program, 129
embedding: in birdsong, 52–54; of consciousness, 106; of events, 119; in music, 7; of pairs, 52; of phrases, 22, 26, 30, 35, 85, 124, 127, 230n18; of processes, 14–15; recursive, 9, 203, 227n14; vs. recursive structure, 6; self-similar, 6; of structures, 20; of time, 107
emotion, 133–34; and autism, 138–39
empathizers vs. systematizers, 142
encephalization quotient (EQ), 197
end-embedding, 28
English, as SVO language, 123
episodic foresight, 240n2
episodic future thinking, 100
Eubulides of Miletus, 23
Everett, Daniel L., 25–26, 33–35, 109, 220, 241n15, 241n16
evolutionary psychology, 136, 228n22; recursion and, 12–15; and theory of mind, 139; use of term, 228n20
eye, as example of design, 174
Facchini, Fiorenzo, 175, 246n10
factor analysis, 228n19
fast mapping, 44
Fauconnier, Gilles, 155
feedback systems, 11
Fermat’s last theorem, 225
Fertile Crescent, 218
Fibonacci series, 5, 227n6, 228n18
fiction: and language, 124–26; and mental time travel, 110–11
fire: controlled use of, 195; human use of, 251n6
Fitch, Tecumseh, 6, 20, 23, 51–52, 234n71
FLB (faculty of language in the broad sense), 51, 234n68
fleas, recurring problem of, 3, 227n4
flight: bird, 248n41; human, 248n38
FLN (faculty of language in the narrow sense), 51, 161, 234n68
fMRI (functional magnetic brain imaging), 62, 101, 101, 238n7
Fodor, Jerry, 152, 156; Modularity of Mind, 228n20
Forster, Margaret, 84; Hidden Lives, 83
fox hunting, 152
Frank, R., 249n66
freeloaders, 136
Frege, Gottlob, 121
Galen, 177
Gardner, Allen and Beatrix, 47
gaze, 146
Geller, Uri, 132
gender agreements: and autistic-psychotic spectrum, 140–44; reversal of, 27
gene flow, from Neandertal to non-African H. sapiens, 250n1
General Semantics, 151
generativity, and language, 121–24
genes: abnormal spindle-like microcephaly associated gene (ASPM), 199; FOXP2, 70–72, 79, 212–13, 251n18, 251n29; MCPH6 (microcephalin), 199; MYH16, 249n62; Neuregulin 1, 244n32; Protocadherin11XY, 235n4
genetic basis of human speciation, 235n4
Georgia State Board of Education, and evolution, 174
gesture, 237n88; as language, 50; and origins of language, 161–65; persistence of, 78–79; and speech, 67–70, 74–78. See also signed languages
Givón, Talmy (Tom), 33
God, human knowledge of, 137–38
Gomero Island, 238n91
Google, 224
gorillas, 38–39, 170, 181, 185, 231n11; as quadrupeds, 183–84; and signed language, 47; and tactical deception, 148
Göring, Hermann, 152
Grady, C. L., 238n7
grammar: rewrite rules of, 21; universal (See universal
grammar) grammar gene, 200
grammaticalization, 29–31, 57, 233n56; use of term, 230n30
Grandin, Temple, 138, 158, 161, 243n18; Animals in Translation, 138–39
Graves, Robert, Beware Madam!, 40
Griffin, Donald R.: Animal Minds: Beyond Cognition to Consciousness, 153; The Question of Animal Awareness, 153
Grodzinsky, Y., 235n23
Hadzabe, and click languages, 213
Hamilton, William D., 140, 158, 225
hand, human/hominin, 189, 248n24
hand-mouth connection, 68
haplogroups, 208; of Homo sapiens, 209; L0, 208–9, 209, 210, 212; L1, 208–9, 209, 210; L2, 208, 209, 210; L3, 208–11, 209, 210, 216; M, 209, 209, 210; N, 209, 209, 210
Happé, Francesca, 160
Hauser, Mark, 20, 51–52, 234n71, 244n49
Hayakawa, Samuel Ichiye, Language in Thought and Action, 151
Hayes, Cathy and Keith, 43
Heavenly Creatures (film), 242n29
Heinrich events, 211
Hennessy, Peter, 10
Henry, O. (William Sydney Porter), The Ransom of Red Chief, 159
Henshilwood, Christopher S., 211
Hewes, Gordon W., 59
hippocampus, 85–86, 88, 176–77, 239n11
Hockett, Charles F., 32, 65–66, 81
Hohle Fels Cave, 215
Holyoak, Keith J., 149–50, 178
hominid, use of term, 229n33, 247n1
hominin, 181, 250n73; hands of, 189; use of term, 229n33. See also names of species
Homo antecessor, 192
Homo erectus, 192, 195, 203, 250n73
Homo ergaster, 63, 192, 203; and brain size, 198
Homo floresiensis, 250n73
Homo habilis, 73, 191–92; and brain size, 198
Homo heidelbergensis, 192
Homo Neandertalensis, 192; and brain size, 198. See also Neandertals
Homo rudolfensis, 191–92; and brain size, 198; and tools, 205
Homo sapiens, 167–68, 192; and brain size, 198; emergence of, 206–7; and migration, 204; and recursion, 181
Hopi language, 120
Horrobin, David, 143
horses, 42
Hottentots, and throwing, 187
House That Jack Built, The, 20–21, 28
Humboldt, Wilhelm, 8
Humphrey, Nicholas K., 194
Huxley, Aldous, Brave New World, 240n32
hyena, 192
hypoglossal canal, 73
Iatmul, 26
iconic representations, in signed languages, 65
I-language, 7, 23–25, 51, 151, 226; mapping to E-language, 29; and natural selection, 55–56; use of term, 229n12, 234n68
Ilgar, 28
implicatures, 156
infants: adaptability of, 207; and articulation, 237n77; and contact with others, 194; and declarative function, 163; and displaced reference, 116–17; and distinction of words, 233n41; and false belief, 136, 139, 146; and gestural vs. vocal communication, 164, 201; and handmouth connection, 68; and language deficits, 245n15; and phonemes, 77, 238n96; and pointing, 163–64
inference, and recursion, 129
infinite sequences, recursion and, 4
infinity, concept of, 8
Ingvar, David, 101
innate concepts, 152
instincts, 96
insular dwarfism, 250n73
intelligent design, 174–76, 246n10
intentionality, orders of, 137
intentional stance, 136–37, 157
International Commission on Stratigraphy, 248n32
irony, 245n16; and theory of mind, 159–61
isolating languages, 123
Italian Sign Language, 64
iteration: and recursion, 11–12, 228n18; and time, 108
iterative procedures in computational mathematics, 11
Jackson, Peter, 242n29
James, Henry, 8
James, William, 110
James Randi Educational Foundation, 242n1
Jerison, Harry J., 197
Johnson, Frank, 172
Jones, Judge John, III, 175
Journal of Parapsychology, 132
Kammann, Richard, Psychology of the Psychic (with Marks), 132
Kayardild, 28
Kenyon, Dean, Of Pandas and People (with Davis), 174
killer whales, 39
Kingsley, Charles, The Water Babies, 176
Kirschmann, Eduard, 188; Das Zeitalter der Werfer, 187
Klima, Edward S., 59
Koestler, Arthur, 132
Köhler, Wolfgang, 49, 102, 153
Kozybski, Count Alfred, 151
Kundera, Milan, Ignorance, 89
L3 lineage, expansion and migration of, 209–14
Ladygina-Kohts, Nadesha, 43–44, 232n33, 232n35
“Lady of Flora” (Homo floresiensis), 250n73
Lamb, Charles, 143
language: adapted to the brain, 34; bipedalism and, 191; comprehension of, 44–46; demands of neural storage, 196; diversity of, 26–29; emergence of, in Homo sapiens, 56; evolution of, 23–25, 29, 34, 230n30, 233n56, 234n2; and fiction, 124–26; and generativity, 20, 121–24; gestural origins of, 57–59; and mental capacity, 164; and mental time travel, 113–14; and mimesis, 63–67; and mirror neurons, 60–62; Noam Chomsky’s view of, 23–25; nonrecursive, 25–26; and recursion, 20–23; and social fortresses, 218; and theory of mind, 154–58; and time, 117–21; uniqueness of, 180; used for teaching, 126–27. See also names of individual languages
language, written, influence of, 28
language deficits, 245n15
language instinct, 33
language of thought hypothesis, 151–52
Laongo National Park, 205
laughter, human, 37
Lenguaje de Signos Nicaragüense (NSL), 30–31, 230n30
Leslie, A. M., 244n49
Levallois technology, 206
lexigrams, 47
libraries, 224
Lieberman, Daniel, 73
linearization, 29
Linguistic Society of Paris, 19; and evolution of language, 55
lions, 40
literacy, tradition of, 28
literary critics, before postmodernism, 20
Lovejoy, Owen, 184
Luria, Aleksandr Romanov, The Mind of a Mnemonist, 91
macaque, brain of, 61
Machiavelli, Niccolò, The Prince, 136
Machiavellian intelligence, 136
MacNeilage, Peter F., 67
Makeba, Miriam, 209
Malotki, Ekkehart, 120
Marks, David, 243n3; Psychology of the Psychic (with Kammann), 132
Markus, Hazel, 110
Marler, P., 231n42
Marzke, Mary, 188
massive modularity hypothesis, 228n20
Maudsley, Henry, 143
McCarthy, Robert, 237n85
McGurk, Harry, 68
McGurk effect, 236n53
media, unifying language influence, 230n23
Melanesia, 27
memories: false, 93–95; recovered, 239n27; true vs. false, 239n27, 239n28
memory: autobiographical, 84; declarative, 88; episodic, 84, 86–87, 92, 98, 100, 103, 110, 112–13, 124, 126, 196, 238n3, 240n9; fragility of, 88–90; implicit, 87–89, 98; recursive, 202; semantic, 84, 86–87, 98–99, 126, 238n3; short-term, 238n9; and time, 100; unconscious, 87–88; working, 14, 238n9; www (what, where, when), 103 (See also www criterion)
memory retrieval, and brain activation, 238n7
memory systems, evolution of, 95–99
mental capacity, and language, 164
mental states, recursive embedding of, 227n14
mental time travel, 100–101, 105, 200, 226; animals and, 102–6; and fiction, 110–11; prehistory of, 109
Mesoamerica, 218
metaphor, and theory of mind, 159–61
Milne, A. A., Winnie the Pooh, 9–10, 36
Milton, John, Paradise Lost, 170
mind: human, distinguished from other animals, 1; Swiss-army-knife model of, 12–13. See also theory of mind
mindblindness, 138
minimalism, 158; use of term, 245n13
minimum characteristic, recursion as, 20, 34
mirror neurons, 60–62, 61, 235n24
Mithen, Steven, 14; Singing Neanderthals, 41
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 208
modular theory: of human mind, 12–15; and submodules, 156–57; and theory-ofmind module, 156
morphemes, 31–32; attached to verbs, 117
morphic resonance, 133
Morris, Robert, 132
“motherese” (“parentese”), 45
motor theory of speech perception, 61, 235n24
Mount Toba, eruption of, 217
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Piano Concerto in G Major, 53
Müller, Friedrich Max, 19
myosin-heavy chain (MYH16), 199
Namibia, 76
Nash, Ogden, 227n4
natural language, as exercise in minimalism, 158
natural numbers, 4
Nature, 234n71
Navajo language, 76
Neandertals, 71–73, 206, 237n72, 237n77, 237n85, 248n20, 250n1; and burial of dead, 109; extinction of, 215
Neisser, Ulric, 110
neocortex, size of, 197
neocortical ratio, 197
Neu5Gc (N-glycolylneuraminic acid), 249n59
Newton, Sir Isaac, 219
Nietzsche, Friedrich, Human, All Too Human, 69–70
noun/verb distinction, 242n25
Nurius, Paula, 110
object/action distinction, 242n25
objects, personification of, 140
O’Brian, Patrick, Thirteen-Gun Salute, 233n45
ochre, 211
Oldowan industry, 205
orangutan, 181, 184, 233n45; and tactical deception, 148
ornamentation, personal, 214
Orrorin tugenensis, 183
Orwell, George, Nineteen Eighty-four, 151
Papp, Szilvia, 160
participant, use of term, 240n33
Pascal, Blaise, 169
patterning, duality of, 32
Patterson, Francine, 47
Pearse, Richard William, 248n38
Pepperberg, Irene, 223
periodic form, development of, 28–29
personification, of objects, 140
Pfungst, Oskar, 42
Philological Society of London, 19
phonemes, 31, 235n25; differentiation of, 77; used in language, 76–77
phrases: concatenation of, 30; embedding of, 22, 26, 30, 35, 85, 124, 127, 230n18
Piaget, Jean, 135
Pinker, Steven, 6–7, 13–14, 28, 33, 48, 113, 116, 152, 154; and emergence of language, 56; and grammar gene, 200; How the Mind Works, 12; and language as instinct, 96; and onomatopoeia, 65
Pirahã, 25–26, 33–35, 109, 220, 230n18, 241n15, 241n16, 252n5; and time, 119–21
Plato, 242n25; Cratylus, 236n41
Pleistocene, 12, 15, 167; evolution during, 191–95
Pliocene, and global cooling, 191
Ploog, Detlev, 235n7
pointing, to share information, 162–64
Potter, Beatrix, 36
Povinelli, Daniel, 49, 145–46, 149–50, 178
prefrontal cortex, 200
present time, 118
primates: and signed languages, 46–51; and tactical deception, 148. See also names of species
problem solving, 233n58
protolanguage, 48–50, 230n30, 233n56, 234n2
Provine, Robert, Laughter: A Scientific Investigation, 37
Psalms, Book of, 170
psi, 133
psychokinesis, 132
psychosis, 139; and creativity, 142–44
Qafzeh Cave site (Israel), 109
Ramachandran, Vilayanur, 60
Randi, James, The Truth About Geller, 132
Read, Dwight W., 14
recursion: center-embedded, 20–21; definition of, 1–2, 6; and evolutionary psychology, 12–15; fifth-order, 243n16; and inference, 129; vs. iteration, 11–12; as key to human mind, 178–80; language as, 20–23; as minimum characteristic, 20, 34; nature of, 1–16; origins of, 206; as process, 7, 8; vs. repetition, 9–11; as structure, 7, 8
recursive embedding, 203
recursive manufacture, 186
recursive parsing, birds and, 52–54
reference time, 118
relational reinterpretation theory, 149–50
religion: and intelligent design, 175; and theory of evolution, 172–73; and theory of mind, 137–38; and time, 108–10
repetition, vs. recursion, 9–11
rewrite rules, 229n7
rhesus monkeys, and mirror test, 149
Rhine, Joseph B., New Frontiers of the Mind, 131–32
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 58
rugby, 248n20
runaway recursion, 179
runaway social selection, 195
runaway theory of mind, 144, 150
Russell, Bertrand, 23
saber-tooth cats, 192
Sacks, Oliver, An Anthropologist on Mars, 138
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 183
Saki (H. H. Munro), 10; Tobermory, 36
Salmond, Anne, 76
San, and click languages, 213
Sapir, Edward, 120
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 120
sarcasm, 159
Saussure, Ferdinand de, 64–65, 115
Savage-Rumbaugh, Sue, 44, 47, 233n50
savant syndrome, 90, 92–93, 143
Schacter, Daniel L., 101
schizophrenia, 139, 141, 143, 244n27
schizotypal personality, 140
sciatica, 186
scrambling languages, 123
self, extended in time, 110
self-awareness, in animals, 148–49
Semendeferi, K., 249n66
sentence, 22–23; periodic, 28–29
sexual abuse, 94–95, 239n27, 239n28
Shakespeare, William: Henry IV, 234n70; Henry V, 192–93; Henry VIII, 79; Twelfth Night, 9, 109
Shaw, George Bernard, and throwing (literary stones), 190
Sheldrake, Rupert, 133; Dogs That Know When Their Owners Are Coming Home, 42
Shereshevskii, Solomon, 91
Sidgwick, Henry, 131
Sierpinski triangle, 4
signal detection theory, 239n28
signed languages, 65, 236n33, 236n41, 236n55; animals and, 46–51; as true languages, 46, 235n15. See also names of languages
Silbo Gomero, 238n91
singing, 41. See also birdsong
Skinner, B. F., 121, 242n22; Walden Two, 97–98
Snow, C. P., Coat of Varnish, 242n28
social bonding, 195
social intelligence, 136
Society for Psychical Research, 131
Spectator, The (magazine), 2–3
speech: and gesture, 67–70, 74–78; impenetrability of, 76; intentionality of, 39; origin of, and anatomical changes, 72–74; parts of, 28; and vocal learning, 39. See also language
speech time, 118
spider, 10
Squire, Larry, 239n11
starlings, 234n70; and recursion, 52–54, 53, 227n10
Stokoe, William C., Gesture and the Nature of Language (with Armstrong and Wilcox), 59
stories. See fiction
Stumpf, Professor, 42
subitization, 227n12
subject (experimental), use of term, 240n33
Suddendorf, Thomas, 100, 102, 240n2, 245n16
SVO languages, 123
Swift, Jonathan, 227n4; A Modest Proposal, 159
symbolic representation, 114–17, 179
systematizers vs. empathizers, 142
Tanner, Joanne, 50
Tattersall, Ian, 72
texting, 116
theoretical physics, 242n30
theory of mind, 129, 133–38, 180, 202, 226, 243n12, 244n49; animals and, 144–48; cognitive aspects of, 144; and language, 154–58; and recursion, 137; recursive nature of, 35; and religion, 137–38
theory-of-mind module, 156
thought, 2
Three Mountains Test, 135
time: grammar of, 112–27; and human condition, 106–10; and language, 117–21; linear concept of, 241n28; and recursion, 107–8; and religion, 108–10
Tiriyo, 28
Tomasello, Michael, 25, 28, 49–50, 162–63
ToMM-1, 244n49
ToMM-2, 244n49
Tooby, John, 13; The Adaptive Mind (with Barkow and Cosmides), 12
Tooke, John Horne, 122
tools, 214; manufacture of, 204–6
tool use: bonobos and, 240n25; and mental time travel, 105–6
Tower of Hanoi task, 87
Trivers, Robert, 136
Turkish Sign Language, 66
Uisia (dialect), 27
United States, southwestern, 218
universal grammar, 23–25, 27–29, 33, 35; use of term, 229n12, 234n68
Universal Theory, 238n96
universal toolkit, for language, 35
Upper Paleolithic (Late Stone Age), 214–17
Uylings, H. B. M., 249n66
Vanuatu, 27
Vatican, 246n10
verb tense, 117
vervet monkeys, and symbolic representation, 116
Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 173
visual language. See names of languages; signed languages
Vogel, J. W., 187
volcanism, 251n32
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 173, 176
Walpiri language, 123
Watts, David, 108
Wearing, Deborah, 85
Wernicke’s area, 61
whale, 196
Whitehead, Alfred North, 121
Whitman, Walt, Leaves of Grass, 10
Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 120
Wilcox, Sherman E., Gesture and the Nature of Language (with Armstrong and Stokoe), 59
Wiles, Andrew, 225
Wilson, David Sloan, 125, 156–57
Wilson, Deirdre, 156
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 78
Woodruff, Guy, 145
word order, 122
words: combinatorial structure of, 31–33; “necessary,” 122; as primitives, 242n24; segregation of, 233n41; stored in semantic memory, 126; transmutation of, 233n40
Wrangham, Richard, 195
www criterion, 112
Wynn, Clive, 153; Do Animals Think?, 152
Young, Richard W., 188
Zipf, G. K., Human Behavior and the Principle of Least-Effort, 115
Zipf’s law, 115