22.1. A historical overview

The apprenticeship system in China dates back to the Qin dynasty (200 BC). This is where the first traces of vocational training in China come from (Yang and Su 2016). Apprenticeships have developed and transformed throughout history in the interaction between the master and the apprentice, in a bottom-up manner. Given a lack of regulation at the national level, the various masters and trades have implemented their explicit or implicit ways of practicing apprenticeships, thereby shaping the apprenticeship culture in their own way. Moreover, the importance of Guanxi (social networks or social ties) in Chinese culture has strengthened the master–apprentice relationship, with the master usually having authoritarian power, as well as a profound sense of responsibility for the apprentice. Although practices have varied between individuals and trades, the “spirit of craftsmanship” has gradually become the recognized essence of apprenticeships in China. The practice of apprenticeships in this country has therefore carried Confucian values with it, while reflecting the cultural specificity of morality and the profession.

This chapter first explores the cultural elements of the Chinese apprenticeships in two aspects of morality and the profession. It will then present the Chinese model of modern apprenticeships, developed under the regulation of the government. The chapter concludes with implications for the French model, in particular on the master’s role.

22.2. Cultural elements: morality and the profession

22.3. Modern apprenticeships in China: a reform towards a formal system initiated by the government

The traditional practice of an apprenticeship in China has emerged from an informal system based on the psychological contract, which has generated high transaction costs between stakeholders. There was therefore a gap between teaching in schools and the skills expected at work, as companies were not effectively motivated to create partnerships with educational institutions (Yang 2017). This trend worsened even further when vocational schools had difficulty recruiting students, in the context of an uncertain labor market and low wages for workers. As the problems multiplied, the need for a formalized and regulated system with protocols that interested parties could follow became imperative.

The Chinese government has tried to redesign the system and create a platform to maximize the use of educational resources, to address the imbalance between supply and demand in the labor market, and to meet the long-term need for skilled workers. In 2014, a government-organized apprenticeship system was launched, elevating the “spirit of craftsmanship” to the level of a national strategy (the State Council of the People’s Republic of China 2014). To distinguish it from an already existing informal system, the term “modern apprenticeships” was introduced, in order to reinforce the idea of a comprehensive mechanism at the national level. The government has acted as the coordinator and monitor to connect schools and businesses, while being in charge of the selection process, annual evaluation, policy reform and so on. The measures taken were applied in a top-down approach, yet step by step, in order to proceed by trial and error during the transition period.

In 2015, the central government selected 165 schools and companies from more than 5,000 applicants to serve as the laboratory for the new system (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2015). Some 203 organizations were selected in 2017 and this number was expected to increase to 508 by the end of 2018 (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2018). The selection takes into account several elements: the five-year national strategic plan, the capacity and demand of the companies, regional and organizational factors. The selected schools and companies received government funding in return for their participation in the apprenticeship system. The objective is to create a loss-free situation, where the participating school will be able to offer well-paid job opportunities and the company will be able to benefit from the work of apprentices and a pool of future employees once the apprenticeship is completed. Both parties benefit from public funding, as well as good relations with local government, which is significantly important in the Chinese context.

Apprentices have a dual identity upon their school enrolment: that of a student and of an employee (Wang and Cheng 2012). Similarly, the school and the company share responsibility for educating and training apprentices. Apprentice students regularly travel between their school and the company (e.g. weekly) to strengthen the link between the classroom and the workplace. The apprentice may or may not follow a training path leading to a diploma, depending on his or her needs. The agreement between the school and the company – as well as the agreement between the master and the apprentice – describes the responsibilities and duties in detail, including the aim, learning objectives, salary, working hours, working conditions and insurance against accidents at work.

The curriculum and learning objectives are negotiated on a case-by-case basis between the school and the company. In the annual evaluation procedure, the governing body examines the implementation of the agreement and the government’s requirements. Schools or companies may be excluded from the system if they do not meet the performance criteria. In rare cases, an organization already involved in the apprenticeship system may apply to withdraw for special reasons. An attempt to restore respect and admiration for skilled workers was undertaken at the same time as the apprenticeship reform took place, in line with the “spirit of craftsmanship”. Western apprenticeship systems, particularly the German system, have served as an inspiration in this effort with the aim of achieving a level of excellence in the training of skilled workers (Ran and Shi 2016).

22.4. Implications for France

The Chinese model focuses on different stakeholders in apprenticeships, with the importance of a stronger partnership between training centers and companies in the development of apprentices. Successful apprenticeships, regardless of the cultural context, would preferably require such close collaboration.

The spirit of craftsmanship characterizes apprenticeships in the Chinese context. It places the role of “the apprenticeship manager” (“master” as termed in Chinese tradition) at the heart of the apprenticeship process. In the French context, as in other contexts, the apprenticeship manager appears to be a key actor in the success of an apprenticeship. An expert in his profession, this apprenticeship manager does not necessarily take steps to pass on his skills, but rather to build a bridge between theories and practice. Apprenticeships for the purpose of learning from others and for oneself remain a major challenge.

In the French context, the reassessment of the function of the apprenticeship manager and better training led to proposal 23 in the report for the development of apprenticeships in 2018. The aim is to establish certification for apprenticeship manager and to make the training of new apprenticeship managers compulsory. Beyond the mandatory nature, which will not be included in the apprenticeship reform, there is the question of purpose. For example, for a management apprenticeship, the training of apprenticeship managers could include:

• – the functioning of apprenticeships;
• – knowledge of apprentices;
• – a focus on management.

Without going so far as to play the role of a “father” in the Chinese model, the apprenticeship manager, as a “human capital developer” (Ulrich and Brookbank 2005), puts apprentices in the right situations so that they can develop the skills useful to their trade in a short time, as well as the skills that will then enable them to continue the “learn – unlearn to learn better” cycle, in a longer time. The apprentices will then be, following the logic of co-management of careers (Cerdin 2015), the real actors behind their careers. They will develop not only the skills required for a short-term occupation, but also the skills to advance their careers. Ultimately, this will benefit not only the training institutions that have validated their training, but also the companies that have supported these apprentices and those that will continue to develop the apprentices as employees beyond the apprenticeship.