16
Organizing the Augmented Customer Relationship

16.1. Introduction

Implementing an augmented customer strategy and the organization that goes with it is necessarily a source of paradoxical tensions at multiple levels: control versus collaboration, a collective versus individual approach, seeking efficiency versus flexibility, exploring versus exploiting, favoring profits versus responsible behavior, etc. [SMI 11]. These paradoxical tensions reflect the simultaneous presence of related but contradictory elements that need to be best articulated. They are all the more marked as the business environment becomes more global, more competitive, has faster changes and internal processes in more complex organizations [LEW 00]. The digitization of the economy, and therefore of organizations, is both a cause and a consequence of these developments, requiring a rethinking of customer strategy in the face of new technological, social and environmental challenges (Chapter 1). This is true for a wide range of organizations, large companies, mid-cap companies and SMEs, but also non-market organizations such as NGOs, local authorities, etc.

At the level of customer strategy, these paradoxes are manifested on many levels, resulting from the necessary transformation of the organization brought about by the advent of digital technology and simultaneously reinforcing this need for digital transformation.

To identify only some of these paradoxes, the previous chapters have shown that with the development of a digitized customer strategy, paradoxical situations appear:

  • – the customer is declared to be at the heart of the organization but their voice is not always formally heard within it, particularly at management committee level;
  • – digital technology leads the organization toward very analytical data management, which sometimes forces the human being into the background (metric-based versus people-based), contrary to what the fundamentals of relational marketing advocate;
  • – brands and customers have more and more communication tools, but in the end, brands face many crises of trust and the development of resistance movements; few customers are thus active when it comes new digital communication media;
  • – the company emphasizes the customer journey but forgets the employee journey. Employees, especially those in contact with customers, play a key role in customer relations, but their work is not always considered and/or facilitated;
  • – the customer is declared as being at the heart of the organization, but many companies outsource a large number of the operations related to customer relationship management;
  • – more and more companies are formalizing a customer strategy, but the means implemented are not always in line with this strategy. Those who do not formalize their customer strategy sometimes tend to adopt many customer relationship tools without “putting them to music”.

This chapter proposes to respond, in part, to the management of these paradoxes by first asking the question of the governance of customer strategy within organizations, and then, in a second step, the roles of the various stakeholders. A third section will ask the question of internalization versus externalization of customer relationship management. Finally, as a conclusion, we will see the importance of thinking about a coherent implementation of customer strategy using a configuration theory.

16.2. Governance of customer strategy within the organization

16.2.1. The value of having a Chief Customer Officer

The first paradox to be managed by the organization is the governance of customer strategy.

Many authors suggest the establishment of a Chief Customer Officer (CCO) or Chief Experience Officer [RUS 10]. This role is increasingly present in organizations. The arrival of a CCO must make it possible to move away from a product/service logic toward a real relational logic [RUS 10], i.e. to work on the value of the customer in a long-term perspective. In this context, the product/service serves a long-term relationship with the customer and is no longer an end in itself. IBM’s trajectory from manufacturing computers to proposing solutions is an illustration of this. The product/service is no more than a means, at a given instant t, of meeting a need.

The CCO is responsible for developing a customer culture within the organization.

However, the introduction of this function is not without risks. The CCO must play the role of a conductor and not let other actors in the organization think that they are no longer concerned with customer relations because of their presence.

16.2.2. The CCO, the one man orchestra

The CCO must have a central position in the organization, directly supported by and reporting to the CEO. They must be in charge of defining and implementing the customer strategy and must have the means to supervise all functions related to the customer [RUS 10].

One of the CCO’s major challenges today is to manage the collection and analysis of data, while maintaining a real relational dimension (in the sense of human relations). The multiplication of sources and the nature of the available data make their processing a real challenge that concentrates all the attention. The risk is then to see the metric-based approach totally supplanting the people-based approach. Big data and the many automated processes implemented to “personalize” the relationship are sometimes perceived by customers as a dehumanization of the relationship.

To fulfill their mission, the CCO must work closely with the Head of Information Systems (see Chapter 15) or the Personal Data Protection Officer (see Chapter 14) and be able to rely on employees capable of giving meaning to these data (data analysts in larger structures, but also marketing manager or research manager when there is no data analyst, which is often the case in smaller structures).

The CCO’s mission is to enable everyone in the organization to understand who the customer is, what they want and what they do not want. To this end, actions can be implemented to lead functional managers to customers, or customers to functional managers (Box 16.1).

16.3. The role of the different stakeholders in customer relationship management

Customer relationship management involves a fairly wide range of stakeholders. If the entire company is to be customer-oriented, employees – especially those in contact with customers – must be the cornerstone. But customer relations also concern shareholders, the service providers with whom the company works and finally the public authorities who have taken on the task of regulating it in recent years.

16.3.1. The key role of employees

If relational marketing is initially sought to highlight the human relationship, it must be noted that the digitization of the economy and the advent of big data have taken us a step away from it, moving – as mentioned earlier – from a people-based logic to a data or metric-based logic. This technological transformation has led a number of companies to put the digital sphere at the heart of their strategy, with a “digital first” logic that can lead to “overwhelming” the other dimensions of the organization. Hence the growing idea of considering the “people first” as the driving force of the company, which naturally leads us to consider in a very interdependent way the customer experience and the employee experience, the quality of the first being based on the quality of the second [FRI 16]. Thus, the company “attracts and retains its customers because it attracts and retains talents” [FRI 16, p.148].

16.3.1.1. Thinking about employees to better serve customers

“To serve its teams to improve customer service, this simple idea is the foundation of symmetry of attention” [DIT 14, p. 10].

If this concept of “symmetry of attention”1 was first developed in service marketing, it makes sense when it comes to customer strategy. It assumes that the quality of the relationship between a company and its customers is equal to the quality of the relationship between the company and its own employees and in particular between managers and frontline employees. The idea of symmetry of attention is fully in line with a service-profit chain approach as described in Figure 16.1.

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Figure 16.1. The key role of employees in value creation (service-profit chain)

The symmetry of attention must lead, in most organizations, to a transformation of managerial culture, involving both marketing and HR managers [DIT 14]. At a time when digital technology is tending to give more and more space, power and freedom to the customer, it is useful to think about freeing employees from their scripts. If the company wants to create an emotional relationship with its customers, it must have motivated, autonomous and responsible employees, with easy access to useful data to serve the customer [BHA 16], making them “augmented employees”. By motivating and rewarding employees who are positively engaged in customer relationship management, the company will demonstrate its commitment to its employees and in this way align their interests with those defined in its customer strategy [NHA 10]. To do this, it must listen to its employees as it listens to its customers, but also give them a voice, the same that it gives to customers. It should also give meaning rather than rules to the actions of employees. This involves recruiting employees for their expertise but also for their interpersonal skills and their ability to integrate into the organization’s relational culture (attitude versus aptitude).

Thus, the symmetry of attention must lead to the redesign of a managerial model known as “relational” in which the employer brand takes on its full meaning and translates what the company has to say in terms of responsible management [DIT 14]. It should lead to the design of an “employee journey” as we now systematically design a customer journey in order to make it more fluid and coherent.

16.3.1.2. Better mobilizing employees to get to know customers better

Placing the employee at the heart of the organization, even before the customer – to use the provocative title of Nayar’s book [NAY 10] Employees first, Customers Second – offers the opportunity to better rely on the customer’s knowledge, especially when it comes to frontline employees.

Lam et al. [LAM 16] show the interest of combining and integrating big data with what they call “small data” collected and held by the frontline employees. For them, only the articulation between these two types of data will allow an optimal service to be provided to the customer. Small data refer to the data collected by frontline employees during their interactions with customers. The tacit, interpersonal, real-time, emotional and intuitive nature of this knowledge largely complements the historical, disembodied and behavioral knowledge often held in databases. The articulation between small and big data is a real challenge that remains to be solved.

16.3.1.3. The new roles of employees: what are the challenges?

Employees, and in particular frontline employees, have always faced difficulties in customer relationship management. However, some of these difficulties are exacerbated in the digital age. To focus on only two of them, this section will deal with the issue of deviant 4.0 customers and the right of employees to disconnect. In addition, another major type of challenge is related to the evolution of digital-related businesses.

16.3.1.3.1. New difficulties for employees to manage

The study of deviant customers is not new [ABR 13]. The deviant customer may be one who seeks to deceive the company, but also to take revenge on it. The development of digital technology has enabled new forms of expression through the mobilization of social networks in particular. The example of Dave Caroll and his viral video2 on United Airlines (more than 18 million views in the summer of 2018) is a good illustration. The musician saw his guitar seriously damaged by the airline and after 9 months of unsuccessful attempts to obtain compensation finally decided to show his adventure in a video clip featuring poor treatment by customer service employees. These situations are sometimes difficult to anticipate and generally not well experienced by employees. Failing to properly manage the situation at the time, United Airlines subsequently decided to use it as a case study for internal training to transform this incident into something useful for the company.

The development of digital technology has also led to “the shortening of deadlines, the acceleration of paces and the generalization of simultaneity. In the war waged by the actors of chrono-competitiveness, they have been converted into real weapons” [JAU 14, p. 25]. But these expectations of immediacy from customers – and managers – sometimes make it difficult for employees to disconnect from digital media. Thus, a right to disconnect was enshrined in the French 2016–1088 law on “work, modernization of social dialogue and security of professional careers”3, but it remains very difficult to implement.

16.3.1.3.2. An inevitable evolution of careers

In connection with the previous point, it must be noted that employees are strongly impacted by career evolution (career changes and recruitment of new talents). For example, a study by the World Economic Forum published in 2018 indicates that, by 2025, 52% of administrative tasks will be carried out by computers4. While we can be pleased that some very repetitive tasks are now being handled automatically, we can only be concerned about the future of the employees who used to perform them and who are not always able to upgrade their skills to embrace new careers. Indeed, it is commonly observed that customer interface businesses are evolving toward more analytics and consulting. Self-care and automatic responses via artificial intelligence (85% of customer/company interactions could be automated by bots by 20205) will not meet all customer expectations. It is then a question of imagining a clever mix between production delegated to the customer, automation of the processing of their requests and the ability to propose a more advanced expertise, an ability to connect6.

The store still has a role to play. Chapters 7 and 8, for example, showed the importance of offering unique customer experiences, particularly through human contact and the expertise of salespeople. The development of this expertise (being able to do better than the search engine that the customer can activate on their phone) is a major issue in customer relationship management. Chapter 9 of this book, devoted to customer relations and digital technologies, suggests that the sales force’s business will also change significantly, although it is not yet clear which scenario will arise.

16.3.2. Other stakeholders involved

Other stakeholders have a role to play in customer relationship management. As such, customers can be included in the umbrella term of “stakeholders”: they can be stockholders, service providers (see below) and employees (see Chapters 3 and 4). These multiple facets lead to double or triple relationships and sometimes confusion of roles.

16.3.2.1. The stockholders

The customer strategy and the quality of the customer relationship that results from it can obviously have an impact on shareholders (see Figure 16.1). Fornell et al. [FOR 06] show that having satisfied customers (which they measure using the American Customer Satisfaction Index) increases the value of stocks, reflecting the fact that customer satisfaction is likely to improve the level and stability of cash flows. Indeed, satisfied customers are more likely to generate large and low volatility cash flows. This is in line with Ramani and Kumar [RAM 07] who propose to approach performance in a financial but also relational way. According to them, a customer’s relational value is captured by their satisfaction, their propensity to exercise positive word of mouth and customer engagement. It deteriorates when customers enter into resistance action [ROU 07, PRI 12]. To take the example of Dave Caroll and United Airlines, the latter’s share price fell by 10% in the early days of the viral broadcast of the video developed by the singer in revenge for the company’s failure to take his claim into account. A new incident in 2017 – a man who was removed from an overbooked plane and whose video generated buzz – once again impacted the company’s stock market value and led the company’s board of directors to index part of the CEO’s bonus linked to customer satisfaction.

The investment company Trusteam Finance (more than €1 billion in assets) has well integrated this since it has constructed its investment model on the level of customer satisfaction in companies in which it invests and has done this with success (Box 16.2).

The more the customer is a stockholder or member, the stronger the interweaving of the customer–stockholder relationship can be. Cooperative or mutualist actors can, in this sense, benefit from a good customer relationship in two ways. Indeed, Béal and Sabadie show that the fact that a customer is also a member creates a sense of ownership that reinforces their commitment to the company and their willingness to collaborate in order to participate in improving services [BEA 18]. The current interest in social economy actors could be a source of rebuilding customer and shareholder relations.

16.3.2.2. The service providers

Many services are provided by mobilizing networks of actors. For example, the manager of an airport is highly dependent on the quality of service and customer relationship management implemented by the various stakeholders: security, shops, restaurants, cleaning companies, etc. Similarly, Uber or Airbnb connection platforms are dependent on the third parties who provide the service. Thus, Airbnb describes the commitments of the latter on its site in order to engage them in practices in line with the promise made to customers of providing a unique experience7.

Customer relationship management must be designed to involve all these players. It can be formalized in a document approved by all the actors in the chain. The customer’s commitment to the company depends on the actions of all these actors [LEM 16]. As an illustration, the Rana Plaza scandal in Bangladesh in 2013 had an impact on the trust of some of their customers in the clothing brands affected by the collapse of the building.

The development of contact channels often involves a multiplicity of actors, some of whom are external to the organization. Lemon and Verhoef [LEM 16] identify four types of touch points: those owned by the brand, those depending on partners, those related to the customers themselves and finally those related to the customer’s social environment. We are interested here in the second category. Research on the impact of this category of actors on customer relationship management remains limited. However, it is easy to show the combined effects: for example, a company that develops its own smartphone application remains dependent on updates from Google or Apple to ensure its successful operation [LEM 16]. The development of connected objects tends to increase the number of players involved (industry, hardware manufacturer, software developer, etc.).

16.3.2.3. Public authorities

Public authorities have recently addressed customer relationship management issues, in particular through the implementation of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) which came into force on May 25, 2018 and is presented in Chapter 14. This regulation aims to better protect consumers.

Work remains to be done in this direction, as shown by the bill to prohibit the introduction of a time limit for the expiry of loyalty points tabled on April 13, 2018 in the French Parliament by Deputy Patrick Hetzel and presented in Chapter 13.

Companies continue to “play” with the legal framework, sometimes to the detriment of customers, potentially reinforcing customers’ resistance behaviors. Box 16.2 is an example.

16.4. In-house contracting or outsourcing: who should implement customer relationship management?

The implementation of a customer strategy in the digital age raises certain challenges:

  • – as mentioned several times in previous chapters, digital technology opens the organization to the outside world. If the implementation of relationship marketing and customer relationship management had already pushed organizations to ensure that everyone should feel concerned about customer relations, this is even stronger in the 4.0 era. Thus, new professions are emerging and the “old” ones must be transformed;
  • – customer relations, because they are is demanding in terms of human resources and know-how, are often subcontracted. It is therefore difficult to guarantee quality.

However, any poorly managed relationship can lead to customer defection, which can be a source of joy for competitors who collect the discourses of dissatisfied customers posted online and contact them to provide them with a solution and thus win them over. These poorly managed relationships can also lead to a lack of attractiveness for potential customers.

16.4.1. Managing customer relations internally

The various chapters of this book have shown that everyone in the organization must be involved in the implementation of customer relationship management. This requires the development of a customer-oriented culture [DIT 14] and the development of new professions: community manager, UX (user experience) designer, data analyst, etc. As the legal framework becomes increasingly important, the presence of a lawyer becomes a key element for the company.

If the corporate culture succeeds in placing the customer at the heart of the organization and providing common sense through a strong employer brand, the answers provided to customers will benefit. However, for reasons of financial and/or human resources, the customer relationship often remains, in whole or in part, subcontracted. It is therefore the outsourcing of core competencies.

16.4.2. Outsourcing customer relationship management

16.4.2.1. Subcontracting to partner companies

Subcontracting, while it has a number of advantages, is not without limits.

Different situations can lead to the outsourcing of part or all of the customer relationship management. The development of platforms (GAFA, Booking.com, Airbnb, etc.) has led some manufacturers and service providers to delegate the management of customer contacts without this necessarily being a voluntary choice.

In addition, companies that voluntarily outsource their customer relationship management (call centers, e-CRM, data analysis, etc.) often do so because they think it is not their core business. However, this means abandoning an essential link between the company and the market and abandoning key skills.

We have already mentioned in this chapter the role of employee engagement in the relationship with customers and shown the value of a strong employer brand. It must be noted that subcontractors often have difficulty appropriating the values of the company they defend when they are, in fact, a real showcase [IVE 03]. The frontline employees from the subcontracting company must be trained in the values of the company for which they are working and clearly understand the issues at stake. Giving them a tour of the customer’s premises, meeting regularly with the marketing teams, etc., are elements that go in this direction. In particular, when the management of complaints – a moment of truth between the customer and the company – is subcontracted, the ability of the frontline employees mobilized by subcontracting to be able to decide and respond in a sufficiently autonomous manner is a fundamental element.

When the subcontractor manages the customer relationship data, it is sometimes difficult for the ordering company to send these data back and merge them into its own databases for processing and analysis. Managing data ownership and access rights efficiently in this context is not an easy task.

16.4.2.2. Outsourcing to customers themselves

The previous chapters have shown a multitude of ways to outsource part of the activity to customers via:

  • – crowfunding (Chapter 2): the customer participates upstream in the financing of innovation;
  • – crowdsourcing and upstream co-creation (Chapter 4): the customer participates in innovation;
  • – co-production (Chapter 3): the customer participates in production by taking on new roles, which are increasingly complete and sometimes complex;
  • – downstream co-creation (Chapter 4): the customer communicates and disseminates the innovation on behalf of the company.

All these actions by the customer are not without risk for the company. Plé and Lecocq [PLE 12] point out that co-creation does not systematically mean increased income or reduced costs. The integration of the customer into the business model (BM) usually involves a profound transformation of decision-making processes, organizational structure and modalities of action. The contribution (quantity, nature and quality) remains uncertain. The authors highlight a set of risks associated with the customer’s integration into the BM:

  • – working for competitors, e.g. when the company socializes with the customer and teaches them how to take on their role in an organizational process, this can be useful to competitors with similar needs: IKEA has admitted to this and has taught customers how to assemble their furniture, a solution that is now an integral part of the furniture market;
  • – losing strategic flexibility: by involving customers too much, the company risks losing decisions and actions relating to strategic choices when customers go beyond the precise framework given to them. The explosion in Internet use and the generalization of the collaborative dimension of online sites (possibility to comment on news, blogs, exchanges via social networks, etc.) encourage everyone to give an opinion in real time and to put pressure on the company’s choices;
  • – limiting innovation capacities, e.g. when customers involved in co-creation are not disruptive enough or are not representative of the clientele;
  • – taking a reputational risk, e.g. if customer proposals are not taken into account;
  • – increase hidden coordination costs, e.g. when it is necessary to train customers, and verify their work;
  • – losing productivity, e.g. when the customer is not trained well enough to perform a task.

16.5. Aligning the organization around the customer strategy

By exploring and formalizing the different paradoxes set out in the introduction to this chapter, managers can go beyond a polarized and simplistic management of their organization’s challenges and gain a better understanding of managing the complexity of situations [QUI 88].

One of the successful ways of defining and implementing customer strategy, and therefore the paradoxical tension management, is the coherence between the chosen strategy, the organization and the tools at its disposal [JAL 17, AMB 15, SMI 11]. Strategy is a prerequisite. It must be formalized to allow actors to appropriate it and deploy the appropriate means and not the other way around, i.e. to adapt to tools deployed in an “anarchic” way. The tools will only be effective if they are put at the service of a strategy, a strategy that will undoubtedly have been preceded by defining the targets of the relational strategy [VOL 12, RIG 06].

The alignment of the organization and tools with the customer strategy requires the internal actors of the organization to take ownership of the latter. The symmetry of attention can be seen as a necessary but not sufficient step to question the company’s practices more globally – in terms of HR, marketing, etc. – in order to align all these components [DIT 14].

The idea of aligning the organization around strategy is very present in the developments on configuration theory. This theoretical framework suggests that several strategy–organization–tool configurations can be sources of performance and value creation [BRE 17]. It is, therefore, not a question of advocating a “one best way”, but rather of considering that there are different ways of achieving relational performance: for each strategy, it is not necessary to systematically apply a given type of organization, but a relevant type of organization (and the related tools).

16.6. References

[ABR 13] ABRAMOVICI M., ABBES M., JULIEN A. et al., Comprendre et gérer la déviance dans la réclamation client. Guide de bonnes pratiques édité par l’Association pour le Management de la Réclamation Client (AMARC), Association for the Management of Customer Claims (AMARC), Paris, France, 2013.

[AMB 15] AMBROISE L., PRIM-ALLAZ I., “Gestion de Relation Client et performance des PME”, Décisions Marketing, vol. 77, pp. 13–30, 2015.

[BEA 18] BEAL M., SABADIE W., “The impact of customer inclusion in firm governance on customers’ commitment and voice behaviors”, Journal of Business Research, vol. 92, pp. 1–8, 2018.

[BRE 17] BRENES E.R., CIRAVEGNA L., WOODSIDE A.G., “Constructing useful models of firms’ heterogeneities in implemented strategies and performance outcomes”, Industrial Marketing Management, vol. 62, pp. 17–35, 2017.

[DEP 17] DE PAOLA F., “Comment Le Club Med améliore l’expérience client”, L’Echo touristique February 5, 2017, available at : https://www.Lechotouristique.com/article/comment-le-club-med-ameliore-l-experience-client,87245.

[DIT 14] DITANDY C., MEYRONIN B., “La symétrie des attentions, ambition ou utopie?”, L’Expansion Management Review, vol. 3, pp. 10–17, 2014.

[FRI 16] FRIMOUSSE S., PERETTI J.M., “Regards croisés. ‘People or Customer first?’, Question(s) de management, vol. 4, pp. 147–159, 2016.

[IVE 03] IVENS B., MAYRHOFER U., “Les facteurs de réussite du marketing relationnel”, Décisions Marketing, no. 31, pp. 39–47, 2003.

[JAL 17] JALLAT F., PEELEN E., STEVENS E. et al., Gestion de la relation client: Total relationship management, Bis data et Marketing mobile, 4th edition, Pearson, Paris, 2017.

[JAU 14] JAUREGUIBERRY F., “La déconnexion aux technologies de communication”, Réseaux, vol. 4, pp. 15–49, 2014.

[LAM 17] LAM S.K., SLEEP S., HENNIG-THURAU T. et al., “Leveraging frontline employees’ small data and firm-level big data in frontline management: an absorptive capacity perspective”, Journal of Service Research, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 12–28, 2017.

[LEM 16] LEMON K.N., VERHOEF P.C., “Understanding customer experience throughout the customer journey”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 69–96, 2016.

[LEW 00] LEWIS M.W., “Exploring paradox: toward a more comprehensive guide”, Academy of Management Review, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 760–776, 2000.

[NAY 10] NAYAR V., Employees First, Customers Second, Harvard Business Press, Boston, 2010.

[PLE 12] PLE L., LECOCQ X., “Intégrer les clients dans le business model”, in PIERRE V. (ed.), Stratégie Clients, Pearson, Paris, 2012.

[PLO 16] PLOUFFE C.R., BOLANDER W., COTE J.A. et al., “Does the customer matter most? Exploring strategic frontline employees’ influence of customers, the internal business team, and external business partners”, Journal of Marketing, vol. 80, no. 1, pp. 106–123, 2016.

[POR 15] PORTER M.E., HEPPELMANN J.E., “How smart, connected products are transforming companies”, Harvard Business Review, vol. 93, no. 10, pp. 96–114, 2015.

[PRI 12] PRIM-ALLAZ I., “La résistance des consommateurs et le marketing”, in MARTINET A.-C. (ed.), Le management au cœur de la société: mutations et ruptures, FNEGE/Vuibert, Paris, 2012.

[QUI 88] QUINN R.E., Beyond Rational Management: Mastering the Paradoxes and Competing Demands of High Performance, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 1988.

[RIG 02] RIGBY D.K., REICHHELD F.F., SCHEFTER P., “Avoid the four perils of CRM”, Harvard Business Review, vol. 80, no. 2, pp. 101–109, 2002.

[ROU 07] ROUX D., “Consumer resistance: proposal for integrative framework”, Recherche et Applications en Marketing (English Edition), vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 59–80, 2007.

[RUS 10] RUST R.T., MOORMAN C., BHALLA G., “Rethinking marketing”, Harvard Business Review, vol. 88, no. 1/2, pp. 94–101, 2010.

[SMI 11] SMITH W.K., LEWIS M.W., “Toward a theory of paradox: A dynamic equilibrium model of organizing”, Academy of Management Review, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 381–403, 2011.

[VOL 12] VOLLE P., Stratégie clients, Point de vue d’experts sur le management de la relation client, Pearson, Paris, 2012.

Chapter written by Isabelle PRIM-ALLAZ and Pierre VOLLE.

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