Climate Change Management: Perspectives from Some Industries in the Context of Asia
Introduction
The recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on the assessment of climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability explains that changes in climate have not only affected the natural and human systems across the countries in all continents, but they have also disturbed the socio-economic development (IPCC 2007, 2014a, b; Kim and Lim 2016). It has been noted that environmental degradation, environmental disasters, and climate change impact have gone beyond the control of any single country or any governance approach. Also, the current governance mechanisms have not yielded anticipated outcomes, and have not commendably addressed climate change-related issues at various levels, local, national, and international. Different countries have implemented different approaches to manage climate change, and different outcomes have been achieved. This has been evidenced via the assessment of countries’ environmental performance. The recent negotiations in Paris in December 2015, with “tears of frustration and anger” pose new challenges to countries regarding achieving the target of emission reduction (AFP 2015, p. 10). Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and Center for International Earth Science Information Network (2014, 2016) have conducted research and established the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) rankings of 132 countries in 2014 and 180 in 2016. A few points are noted from the 2016 EPI rankings: (i) Only one country, Singapore, in the Asian region was in the strongest performers list, that is, top 20 countries; (ii) Only two Asian countries were classified in the top 60 countries; and (iii) 10 Asian countries were classified in the last 60 countries (Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and Center for International Earth Science Information Network 2016). India has been an emerging market and has been considered as a catalyst for economic change and development in the next decade together with China and other emerging economies (Ha 2014, 2016). However, China was ranked 109, and India was ranked 141 in 2016 (Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy and Center for International Earth Science Information Network 2016), that is, belonging to the EPI’s weakest performers list. Figures from the Climate Change Performance (CCP) Index 2015 and 2016 also indicate that different countries have produced different outcomes regarding climate change governance (Burck, Marten, and Bals 2015, 2016). Generally, most of Asian countries did not score well in terms of EPI ranking and the CCP Index. In other words, while several nations have been pursuing national initiatives and participating in some common agenda to slow down the process of climate change mitigation, and/or adaptation to its consequences, this task has absolutely become a real challenge for all relevant stakeholders, including government, the private sector, civil society, and individuals in different economic sectors in different countries.
Given the fact that out of the 10 largest CO2 emitters, five of them, namely India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, and China, are from Asia (see Climate Change Performance Index 2016 by Burck, Marten, and Bals 2016), it is justified that research on climate change governance in Asia should receive more attention. Nevertheless, most of the studies on climate change governance examined issues at the macro level, that is, insufficient research on climate change has been done at the micro level. Thus, this volume aims to close the gap by including research papers covering issues at the micro level or industry level. This volume also incorporates the views of stakeholders from different political actors (government, private, and civil society), different economic sectors, and from various disciplines (environment, agriculture, urban development, tourism, etc.).
Obviously, research on the adverse effects of climate change have transcended various areas and disciplines as well as cross-sectorial, cross-national and cross-continental, new and innovative approaches to manage and govern climate change are imperative to mitigate and adapt to climate change impacts at various levels, especially at the industry level. Thus, the objectives of this edited volume are to (i) examine how different industries manage climate change-related issues, and respond to climate change impacts, in their current capacities and resources; (ii) examine different forms of process innovations in different sectors required to mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts; and (iii) discuss innovative approaches and mechanisms to enhance the public awareness of the adverse effects of climate change.
The five chapters, excluding the introduction and the conclusion chapters, included in this volume are contributed by academics and practitioners from different countries and from different disciplines and various research interests. These chapters cover topics about issues and impact of climate change, and approaches to climate change management in some industries in the context of Asia.
Issues and Challenges Associated with Climate Change and Climate Change Governance in the Context of Asian Countries
Asian countries have faced common issues of climate change, for example, environment-related problems, such as temperature increases, increase in global sea level, changes in bio- and eco-systems, and climate hazards, such as, cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, drought, floods, etc. (Ward et al. 2016; Zickgraf et al. 2016). Other examples include (i) the diminishing of various species and local landraces and (ii) the decrease in agricultural productivity and yield (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008, 2016; Kang, Khan, and Ma 2009). Agricultural productive has been declining over the time due to the fluctuation of rainfall, the loss of soil fertility, leading to (i) lack of inputs, (ii) shortage of labor due to rural-urban migration, and (iii) the occurrence of epidemic and the plague of pests and many other outbreaks (Knox et al. 2012; Malla 2009; Manandhar et al. 2011). Apart from the ecological impacts, the economic impacts of climate change have also been observed, including “loss of agricultural revenue and additional costs for managing water resources, coastlines, and disease and other health risks will be a drag on economic activity” (International Fund for Agricultural Development 2008, p. 2). In addition, climate change has also entailed adverse effects on food securities and gender (Goh 2012; UNDP 2012; Cook 2016).
Women in less developed countries, especially in the rural areas, are vulnerable to climate change impact since they depend much on limited local natural resources for their incomes and livelihood. Limited access to resources, less power to make decision, and limited mobility make these women disproportionately affected by climate change (Alam, Bhatia, and Mawby 2015; Bossuet and Huyer 2016). Besides, the increase in migration flow from the rural areas to urban areas has also created labor crisis in the remote areas which, in turn, intensify the workload burden on women. Hence, gender is a critical policy issue of climate change in the context of Asia.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2008) affirms that there is a strong indirect or negative correlation between climate change and food security. The increase in the amount of GHG emission, the wide spread of deforestation due to burning of fossil fuels to “meet increasing energy demand, and the spread of intensive agriculture to meet increasing food demand,” and the changes in weather conditions due to global warming have seriously impacted “the four dimensions of food security: food availability, food accessibility, food utilization and food system stability” (The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008, p. 1). Thus, there are good reasons for us to embark on research on how climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and technologies affect agricultural production. Japan has emerged as one of the interesting cases with regards to technology and food security given the emphasis on environmental friendly agricultural and organic farming methods (Moreno-Peñaranda 2011). There is a strong correlation between mitigation technologies and the supply, the quality, the harvest year of agricultural products, and these, in turn, affect the price of such products, such as rice (Sustainable Development Solutions Network 2013). Scientifically, in order to adapt to climate change, new varieties of agricultural products which have good quality, superior taste, and high yields should be developed. The costs of investment and implementation of a mixture of mitigation and adaptation technologies would be incorporated in the product prices which have been explored in Japan. The case of Japan can be scalable to other countries with regards to the adoption of new technologies to improve the productivity, the quality, and the varieties of agricultural products in order to respond to the food security and food crisis due to climate change (Grafton, Williams, and Jiang 2016).
Another challenge of climate change-related issue is the knowledge and resource management in the information age (Sala 2010; Shi et al. 2016). Information technology is important to record, transform, broadcast, and retrieve relevant information in a climate change management process (Pulwarty and Verdin 2013). Hence, it is essential to explore different information systems and ways to manage “knowledge and action at the relevant scales for decision making in response to a changing climate” (Pulwarty and Sivakumar 2014, p. 14).
Finally, an increase in global trade has increased the volume of shipping via sea, which has led to a high amount of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and water contamination due to discharge of oil, pesticides, hazardous wastes, and industrial effluents (Klein 2009). Jurisdiction and legal complication is unavoidable when climate change-related issues, such as the introduction and implementation of carbon tax and carbon trading, and climate change-related disputes in the maritime sector, occur at both the national and international levels (Conefrey et al. 2008). Apparently, there is substantial evidence to include these issues in this book. The next section will discuss how different industries manage and govern climate change impact.
Governance of climate change is usually associated with institutional planning and arrangements, key players and actors, stakeholder management, systems, instruments, and legal requirements and parameters that directly or indirectly affect the process of climate change management (Djalante, Holley, and Thomalla 2011; Ha 2016; Holley et al. 2011; United Nations Climate Change Secretariat 2014). Practically, no single actor or sector has sufficient knowledge or potential to dominate the governance process of climate change given the nature, the scope of scale of climate change impact (Rhodes 1996, 2007; Kooiman and Jentoft 2009; Visscher, Laubscher, and Chan 2016). There is interdependence among actors in different levels, that is, international, national, and industry levels. As such, though government is normally responsible for governing public issues, such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, many countries have adopted top-down governing approaches to embrace a wider range of non-state actors from economic and social communities, including industry and professional associations, statutory boards, and nongovernmental organizations (Forino, Meding, and Brewer 2015; Rotter et al. 2016). Given the multifaceted and complicated nature of climate change, climate change management should not only be examined at the internal and national levels, but should also be explored in different contexts and at the industry level. Thus, it is justified for us to discuss how different industries have responded to climate change impact in the second part of this book.
Last but not least, growing concerns about the current and potential impacts of climate change in these countries have escalated the multilevel debates over what has been, could be, and should be done to address the potential socio-economic and environmental impacts of climate change in a more effective and efficient manner. From this perspective, there is a need to engage all groups of stakeholders in the governance process of climate change (Gardner et al. 2009; Akompab et al. 2013; Al-zu’bi 2016). The public will demonstrate pro-environmental behaviors if they have good understanding of climate change and its adverse impacts (Hung and Kim 2014; Masud et al. 2015). According to the study by Lee et al. (2015), education is the single strongest factor affecting climate change awareness, and sound understanding of the root causes of climate change is the strongest predictor of climate change risk perceptions. Given the importance of education pertaining to climate change, it is strongly recommended that stakeholders should receive climate change-related education as early as possible (Gam-ad, Martin, and Stortz 2016; Shaw 2016).
An Overview of the Chapters
This edited book starts with “Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Security from Socio-Economic Perspectives in Nepal” (Chapter 2) by Remi, Star, and Paudval. The authors explain that agricultural and food security in Nepal, similarly to any other countries in the South Asian region, has adversely been impacted by climate change. According to the authors, climate change-related variables along with socio-economic factors directly impact the decrease in agricultural production (Kang et al. 2009; Nyuor et al. 2016). The increasing reduction in land holding size has made poor households more vulnerable, especially when natural disasters occur. For example, floods in Bangesaal, Nepal destroyed crops and washed away agriculture land. The findings suggest that climate change has complicated and accelerated the existing problems associated with agricultural and food security in Nepal.
Chapter 3 continues the conceptualization of an interdisciplinary approach with Rückemann examining the creation of long-term multidisciplinary knowledge resources in order to respond to climate change-related issues. Rückemann discussed how structures and classification in the context of High-End Computing (HEC) can be used for the management of environmental and climatological information, and knowledge management in various disciplines and industries (Leitão, Inden, and Rückemann 2013). Overall, the chapter is unique since the approach is not normally found in the literature regarding climate change.
In Chapter 4, Pathania and Ha analyze climate change impact on the maritime industry, and the extent to which the current legal framework can contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation in the context of South Asia. The authors explain that although regulations and laws have been introduced, such as the UNCLOS, these legal instruments appear to be inadequate to address the complicated and unexpected challenges of climate change in the maritime sphere (Michel 2012; Michel and Sticklor 2012; UNEP 2016).
The next chapter focuses on law and climate change. According to Leng (Chapter 5) some impacts of climate change include the intensive rivalry for limited resources, territorial change, disruption to trade patterns, food insecurity, a reduction of productivity in the agricultural, forestry, and fishery sectors (Barnes and Breslow 2003; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008; Nachmany et al. 2016). This chapter examines how the legal industry in Malaysia responds to climate change in a manner which can resolve global issues, and at the same time, contribute to develop and sustain the national economy.
How the price of rice in Japan is affected by mitigation and adaptation technologies in rice production due to climate change is discussed in Chapter 6. Aoki explains that the choice of adaption technologies is crucial since such technologies will affect agricultural product pricing. The climate change adaptive method involving in high-temperature tolerant varieties of rice, and the mitigation strategy of reducing chemical inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, are the center of the discussion in this chapter (Patle, Badyopadhyay, and Kumar 2014; UNFCC 2006).
Conclusion
International and national climate policy components account for 20 percent of the total weight of the CCP Index researched by German-watch and CAN (Burck et al. 2015, 2016). This reinforces the importance of governance to improve CCP. Since the impact of climate change has gone beyond the conventional governance approaches and transcended research fields and disciplines and national boundaries, innovative governance approaches to effectively and efficiently manage climate change and its impact should be explored not only at regional and national levels, but also at the local and sectorial levels.
Generally, governance of climate change is a dynamic, complex, and multidimensional process, embracing various groups of stakeholders in different sectors. Both developed and developing countries have faced multiple challenges when discharging their duty to tackle climate change-related issues and reducing the vulnerability of various stakeholder groups. However, the current governance arrangements, systems, instruments, and processes to mitigate and adapt to climate change exhibit many shortcomings (Dhakhal and Ha 2013; Ha 2013; Ha and Dhakal 2013; Jang, McSparren, and Rashchupkina 2016). Thus, they should be reviewed and modified in order to respond to the changing external and internal environments at all levels. In short, the above chapters emphasize the importance of searching for more holistic and comprehensive governance approaches to address the current and future challenges associated with climate change.
This volume provides better insights to policy and decision makers, researchers, and those who are interested in the topics so that they can have a better understanding of (i) the relationship between climate change and information, gender, legal issues, agriculture; and (ii) how some industries have responded to the adverse effect of climate change.
Some suggestions to address the agricultural problems include proactive initiatives, agricultural reform and legal enforcement are required in order to facilitate the access of farmers to better weather forecasting equipment and information. An interdisciplinary research approach to address issues associated with climate change is important since it can meet the needs of different groups of stakeholders, including academic researchers, policy makers, practitioners, and communities at the grass-root level. Participatory approaches of governance that embrace all groups of stakeholders and actors in different political sectors may enhance the capacity of stakeholders to meet the challenges of climate change at all levels. Apparently, public education has been proposed to be one of the key mechanisms to enhance the public awareness of environmental problems and climate change.
Finally, one of the limitations of this book is its inability to cover all climate change-related issues and all industries due to resource and time constraints. Thus, further research should cover other climate change-related issues and other economic sectors.
References
AFB. 2015. “Tears Flow, Fatigue Takes Hold as Negotiators Approach Finish Line.” Today, p. 10. December 11.
Akompab, D.A., P. Bi, S. Williams, A. Saniotis, I.A. Walker, and M. Augoustinos. 2013. “Engaging Stakeholders in an Adaptation Process: Governance and Institutional Arrangements in Heat-Health Policy Development in Adelaide, Australia.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 18, no. 7, pp. 1001–18.
Alam, M., R. Bhatia, and B. Mawby. 2015. Women and Climate Change: Impact and Agency in Human Rights, Security, and Economic Development. Washington, DC: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.
Al-zu’bi, M. 2016. “Jordan’s Climate Change Governance Framework: From Silos to an Intersectoral Approach.” Environment Systems and Decisions 36, no. 3, 277–301. doi:10.1007/s10669-016-9602-9
Barnes, P., and M. Breslow. 2003. “The Sky Trust: The Battle for Atmospheric Scarcity Rent.” In Natural Assets: Democratizing Environmental Ownership, eds. J. Boyce and B.G. Shelley, 135–49. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Bossuet, J., and S. Huyer. 2016. Gender and Climate Change Policy After COP21. Frederiksberg: CCAFS Program, University of Copenhagen.
Burck, J., F. Marten, and C. Bals. 2015. The Climate Change Performance Index Results 2015. Bonn, Berlin, and Brussels: Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe (CAN).
Burck, J., F. Marten, and C. Bals. 2016. The Climate Change Performance Index Results 2015. Bonn, Berlin, and Brussels: Germanwatch and Climate Action Network Europe (CAN).
Conefrey, T., J.F. Gerald, L.M. Valeri, and R.S.J. Tol. 2008. “The Impact of a Carbon Tax on Economic Growth and Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Ireland.” Papers WP251. Dublin: Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI).
Cook, G. 2016. Global Stories from the Nexus of Gender and Climate Change Vulnerability. Washington, DC: Environmental Change and Security Program Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Dhakal, T.N., and H. Ha. 2013. “Responses to Climate Change—Who is Responsible? A Conclusion.” In Governance approaches to mitigation of and adaptation to climate change in Asia, eds. H. Ha and T.N. Dhakal, 267–72. London: Palgrave Mcmillan.
Djalante, R., C. Holley, and F. Thomalla. 2011. “Adaptive Governance and Managing Resilience to Natural Hazards.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 2, no. 4, pp. 1–14.
European Environment Agency. 2016. Analysis of Key Trends and Drivers in Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the EU between 1990 and 2014. Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2008. Climate Change and Food Security: A Framework Document. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016. Climate Change and Food Security: Risks and Responses. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Forino, G., J.V. Meding, and G.J. Brewer. 2015. “A Conceptual Governance Framework for Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Integration.” International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 6, no. 4, pp. 372–84.
Gardner, J., A.M. Dowd, C. Mason, and P. Ashworth. 2009. “A Framework for Stakeholder Engagement on Climate Adaptation.” CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Working paper No. 3. CSIRO website http://csiro.au/resources/CAF-working-papers.html
Goh, A.H.X. 2012. “A Literature Review of the Gender-Differentiated Impacts of Climate Change on Women’s and Men’s Assets and Well-Being in Developing Countries.” CAPRi Working Paper No. 106. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Grafton, R.Q., J. Williams, and Q. Jiang. 2016. “Food Security: Asia’s Critical Balancing Act.” East Asia Forum, Retrieved from http://eastasiaforum.org/2016/02/02/food-security-asias-critical-balancing-act/
Ha, H. 2013. “Climate Change Governance: The Singapore Case.” In Governance Approaches to Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change in Asia, eds. H. Ha and T.N. Dhakal, 182–99. London: Palgrave Mcmillan.
Ha, H. 2014. “Land Use and Disaster Governance in Asia: An Introduction.” In Land and Disaster Management Strategies in Asia, ed. H. Ha, 1–14. New Delhi: Springer.
Ha, H. 2016. “Governance Framework for Humanitarian and Disaster Response in ASEAN.” Middle East Institute, Retrieved from http://mei.edu/content/map/governance-framework-humanitarian-assistance-and-disaster-responseasean
Ha, H., and T.N. Dhakal. 2013. “Governance Approaches to Mitigation of and Adaptation to Climate Change in Asia: An Introduction.” In Governance Approaches to Mitigation of and Adaptation to Climate Change in Asia, eds. H. Ha and T.N. Dhakal, 1–12. London: Palgrave Mcmillan.
Holley, C., and D. Sinclair. 2011. “Collaborative Governance and Adaptive Management: (Mis)Applications to Groundwater Salinity and Run-Off.” The Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy 14, no. 1, pp. 37–69.
Hung, C.C., and I.K. Kim. 2014. “Climate Change Resilience and Public Education in Response to Hydrologic Extremes in Singapore.” British Journal of Environmental and Climate Change 4, no. 3, pp. 328–54.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Geneva: The IPCC Secretariat.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014a. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. Geneva: The IPCC Secretariat.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014b. “Summary for Policymakers.” In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, 1–32. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Jang, J., J. McSparren, and Y. Rashchupkina. 2016. “Global Governance: Present and Future.” Palgrave Communications 2, 15045. doi:10.1057/palcomms.2015.45
Kang, Y., S. Khan, and X. Ma. 2009. “Climate Change Impacts on Crop Yield, Crop Water Productivity and Food Security—A Review.” Progress in Natural Science 19, no. 12, 1665–74. http://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1002007109002810
Kim, D., and U. Lim. 2016. “Urban Resilience in Climate Change Adaptation: A Conceptual Framework.” Sustainability 8, 405. doi:10.3390/su8040405
Klein, R.A. 2009. Getting a Grip on Cruise Ship Pollution. Amsterdam: Friends of the Earth.
Knox, J., T. Hess, A. Daccache, and T. Wheeler. 2012. “Climate Change Impacts on Crop Productivity in Africa and South Asia.” Environmental Research Letters 7, no. 3, pp. 1–8.
Kooiman, J., and S. Jentoft. 2009. “Meta-Governance: Values, Norms and Principles, and the Making of Hard Choices.” Public Administration 87, no. 4, pp. 818–36.
Lee, T.M., E.M. Markowitz, P.D. Howe, C.Y. Ko, and A.A. Leiserowitz. 2015. “Predictors of Public Climate Change Awareness and Risk Perception Around the World.” Nature Climate Change 5, pp. 1014–20.
Leitão, P., U. Inden, and C.P. Rückemann. November 2013. “Parallelising Multiagent Systems for High Performance Computing.” In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Advanced Communications and Computation (INFOCOMP 2013). Lisbon, Portugal. XPS Press. Retrieved from http://thinkmind.org/download.php?articleid=infocomp_2013_1_10_10055
Lyseen, K., C. Nøhr, E.M. Sørensen, O. Gudes, E.M. Geraghty, N.T. Shaw, and C. Bivona-Tellez. 2014. “A Review and Framework for Categorizing Current Research and Development in Health Related Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Studies.” Yearbook of Medical Informatics 9, no. 1, pp. 110–24.
Malla, G. 2009. “Climate Change and its Impact on Nepalese Agriculture.” Journal of Agriculture and Environment 9, pp. 62–71.
Manandhar, S., D. Vogt, P.R. Sylvain, and K. Futuba. 2011. “Adapting Cropping Systems to Climate Change in Nepal: A Cross-Regional Study of Farmers’ Perception and Practices.” Regional Environmental Change 11, no. 2, pp. 335–48.
Masud, M.M., R. Akhtar, R. Afroz, A.Q. Al-Amin, and F.B. Kari. 2015. “Pro-Environmental Behavior and Public Understanding of Climate Change.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 20, no. 4, pp. 591–600.
Michel, D. 2012. “Environmental Pressures in the Indian Ocean.” In Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges, eds. D. Michel and R. Sticklor, 113–29. Washington, DC: Stimson.
Michel, D., and R. Sticklor. 2012. “Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime and Security Policy Challenges.” In Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges, eds. D. Michel and R. Sticklor, 9–22. Washington, DC: Stimson.
Moreno-Peñaranda, R. 2011. Japan’s Urban Agriculture: Cultivating Sustainability and Well-being. Tokyo: United Nations University.
Nachmany, M., S. Fankhauser, J. Davidová, N. Kingsmill, T. Landesman, H. Roppongi, P. Schleifer, J. Setzer, A. Sharman, C.S. Singleton, J. Sundaresan, and T. Townshend. 2016. Climate Change Legislation in Malaysia: An Excerpt from the 2015 Global Climate Legislation Study A Review of Climate Change Legislation in 99 Countries. London: Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, The Global Legislators Organisation, and Inter-Parliamentary Union.
Nyuor, A.B., E. Donkor, R. Aidoo, S.S. Buah, J.B. Naab, S.K. Nutsugah, J. Bayala, and R. Zougmoré. 2016. “Economic Impacts of Climate Change on Cereal Production: Implications for Sustainable Agriculture in Northern Ghana.” Sustainability 8, pp. 724–50.
Patle, G.T., K.K. Badyopadhyay, and M. Kumar. 2014. “An Overview of Organic Agriculture: A Potential Strategy for Climate Change Mitigation.” Journal of Applied and Natural Science 6, no. 2, pp. 872–79.
Pulwarty, R.S., and M.V.K. Sivakumar. June 2014. “Information Systems in a Changing Climate: Early Warnings and Drought Risk Management.” Weather and Climate Extremes 3, pp. 14–21.
Pulwarty, R., and J. Verdin. 2013. “Crafting Early Warning Information Systems: The Case of Drought.” In Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, ed. Birkmann. 2nd ed. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
Rhodes, R.A.W. 1996. “The New Governance: Governing Without Government.” Political Studies 44, no. 4, pp. 652–67.
Rhodes, R.A.W. 2007. “Understanding Governance: Ten Years on.” Organization Studies 28, no. 8, pp. 1243–64.
Rothballer, C., S. Castaqnino, and P. Gerbert. 2016. What’s the Future of the Construction Industry? Geneva: World Economic Forum.
Rotter, M., E. Hoffmann, A. Pechan, and R. Stecker. 2016. “Competing Priorities: How Actors and Institutions Influence Adaptation of the German Railway System.” Climatic Change 137, no. 3, pp. 609–23.
Sala, S. 2010. The Role of Information and Communication Technologies for Community-Based Adaptation to Climate Change. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Shaw, S. 2016. “It’s Time to Teach Climate Change in School. Here’s how.” The Guardian News. Retrieved September 19 from https://theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/19/its-time-to-teach-climate-change-in-school-heres-how
Shi, J., V.H.M. Visschers, M. Siegrist, and J. Arval. 2016. “Knowledge as a Driver of Public Perceptions About Climate Change Reassessed.” Nature Climate Change 6, pp. 759–62.
SDSN (Sustainable Development Solutions Network). 2013. Solutions for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems: Technical Report for the Post-2015 Development Agenda. Paris and New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network.
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2008. Climate Change Impacts in the Asia/Pacific Region. Rome: The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2012. Gender, Climate Change and Food Security. New York, NY: UNDP.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2009. Building and Climate Change: Summary for Decision-Makers. Milan: United Nations Environmental Programme and Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative (SBCI).
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2016. GEO-6 Regional Assessment for Asia and the Pacific. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme.
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). 2006. Technologies for Adaptation to Climate Change. Bonn, Germany: Climate.
United Nations. 2015. Policy Integration in Government in Pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals. New York, NY: United Nations.
Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy and Center for International Earth Science Information Network. 2014. 2014 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven, CT and Palisades, NY: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy.
Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy and Center for International Earth Science Information Network. 2016. 2016 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven, CT and Palisades, NY: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy.
Visscher, H., J. Laubscher, and E. Chan. 2016. “Building Governance and Climate Change: Roles for Regulation and Related Polices.” Building Research & Information 44, nos. 5–6, pp. 461–67.
Ward, R.D., D.A. Friess, R.H. Day, and R.A. MacKenzie. 2016. “Impacts of Climate Change on Mangrove Ecosystems: A Region by Region Overview.” Ecohealth and Sustainability 2, no. 4, p. e01211.
World Bank. December 2010. “Part III Cities’ Contribution to Climate Change.”
Cities and Climate Change: An Urgent Agenda 10, pp. 14–32.
Zickgraf, C., S. Vigil, F. de Longueville, P. Ozer, and F. Gemenne. 2016. The Impact of Vulnerability and Resilience to Environmental Changes on Mobility Patterns in West Africa. Washington, DC: Knomad.
Bacchi, C. 2010. “Policy and Discourse: Challenging the Construction of Affirmative Action as Preferential Treatment.” Journal of European Public Policy 11, no. 1, pp. 128–46.
Brody, A., J. Demetriades, and E. Esplen. 2008. Gender and Climate Change: Mapping the Linkages: A Scoping Study on Knowledge and Gaps. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.
Dodman, D. 2009. “Blaming Cities for Climate Change? An Analysis of Urban Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories.” Environment and Urbanisation 21, no. 1, pp. 185–201.
Doelle, M. 2009. “The Climate Change Regime and the Arctic Region.” Climate Governance in the Arctic Environment & Policy 50, no. 2, pp. 27–50.
Elbeih, S.F. 2015. “An Overview of Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS for Groundwater Mapping in Egypt.” Ain Shams Engineering Journal 6, no. 1, pp. 1–15.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2016. Climate Change and Food Security: Risks and Responses. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Ha, H., and T.N. Dhakal, eds. 2013. Governance Approaches to Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Change in Asia. London, UK: Palgrave Mcmillan.
Lorenzoni, I., S. Nicholson-Cole, and L. Whitmarsh. 2007. “Barriers Perceived to Engaging with Climate Change Among the UK Public and their Policy Implications.” Global Environmental Change 17, no. 3, pp. 445–59.
Narayanan, K., and S.K. Sahu. 2016. “Effects of Climate Change on Household Economy and Adaptive Responses Among Agricultural Households in Eastern Coast of India.” Current Science 110, no. 7, pp. 1240–50.
Nishimura, T., K. Matsushita, and T. Fujie. 2012. “Consumer Willingness to Buy Biodiversity-Friendly Agricultural Products: The Role of Consumer Characteristics and Knowledge.” Journal of Food System Research 18, no. 4, pp. 403–14.
Peters, G.P. 2010. “Carbon Footprints and Embodied Carbon at Multiple Scales.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2, pp. 245–50.
Rama Rao, C.A., B.K. Raju, A.M. Subba Rao, K.V. Rao, V.M. Rao, K. Ramachandran, and C. Srinivasa Rao. 2016. “A District Level Assessment of Vulnerability of Indian Agriculture to Climate Change.” Current Science 110, no. 10, pp. 1939–46.
Reed, M., A. Graves, N. Dandy, H. Posthumus, K. Hubacek, J. Morris, C. Prell, C. Quinn, and L. Stringer. 2009. “Who’s in and Why? A Typology of Stakeholder Analysis Methods for Natural Resource Management.” Journal of Environmental Management 90, pp. 1933–49.
Rekadwad, B.N., and C.N. Khobragade. December 2016. “Is the Increase in Oil Pollution a Possibility of the Presence of Diverse Microorganisms? An Experimental Dataset on Oil Prevalent Areas of Goa, India.” Data in Brief 9, pp. 8–12.
Rosenzweig, C., and M.L. Parry. 1994. “Potential Impact of Climate Change on World Food Supply.” Nature 367, no. 6459, pp. 133–38.
Shrestha, A.B., C.P. Wake, P.A. Mayewski, and J.E. Dibb. 1999. “Maximum Temperature Trends in the Himalaya and its Vicinity: An Analysis Based on Temperature Records from Nepal for the Period 1971–94.” Journal of Climate 12, no. 9, pp. 2775–86.
Tashmin, N. 2016. “Can Climate Finance in Bangladesh be Helpful in Making Transformational Change in Ecosystem Management?” Environmental Systems Research 5, p. 2.
The Asia Foundation. 2012. A Situation Analysis of Climate Change Adaptation Initiatives in Bangladesh. Dhaka: The Asia Foundation.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2006. Raising Awareness of Climate Change a Handbook for Government Focal Points. Geneva: UNEP.
United Nations. 2015. Policy Integration in Government in Pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals. New York, NY: United Nations.