Creating the Stage Picture: Drawing, Rendering, and Drafting

CHAPTER FIVE

IN THIS CHAPTER

What Are the Differences?

Sal’s Test

Putting It in Proportion

Various Supplies and Tools

Perspective Drawing

Rendering

Drafting

Study Words

So you have all these great ideas. How do you get these wonderful ideas out of your head and into the theatre? We’ll jump right into our discussion of drafting, drawing, and rendering. This is the first tangible step for any designer. You have to get the ideas out of your head and onto paper. That is the only way others can see visually what you’ve been describing verbally. The “old way” to do this was with a pencil and a piece of paper. And many designers still work this way. The “new way” with using technology is to use computer-aided drawing and drafting (CAD) software, photo manipulation software, as well as other programs written specifically for the theatre. The goal of creating drawings and drafting is still very simple. Get the ideas out of your head so they can be realized.

Semantics can be a nasty word. Picture this: You and the director are having your first conversation. He or she says his or her favorite color is green. He or she wants the whole set to be green. Let’s ignore his or her motivation for a second. If you are not careful, you’ll walk away from this meeting thinking, OK, I can do that. Then at the next meeting when you show the director your sketch in glorious sage green, he or she screams in horror and says, “Not that green!” Theatre is a visual business—I’ve said it before and I’ll say it again. Sometimes words just don’t cut it. Remember the saying “A picture is worth a thousand words”? Well, it sure is true. Whenever possible your ideas will come across much clearer if they are presented in a visual way. That is what this chapter is all about. So let’s get on with it.

So what is the big deal about drawing? You don’t like to draw? You don’t think you are any good at it? Well, here is the scoop. Drawing is simply an extension of seeing. You can use drawing as an exercise to better look and see. The more closely you observe the world around you, the better you can relate it visually to others. Don’t give up on drawing and sketching. It takes practice like everything else. But it is some of the best training I ever received!

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES?

Drawing, drafting, and rendering. Let’s break it down and discuss the basic ideas of each before moving on to the technical how-to. Drawing is often used interchangeably with sketching. I find it interesting that the dictionary tends to define draw as a pulling toward yourself. The artistic definition of draw is much further down the list. Well let’s think about it for a second. Maybe we can use that part of the definition to indicate that we are pulling our ideas together and allowing them to form on the outside of our head. Esoteric at best, but I think there is something interesting there. Sketch has similar combinations of definitions. It is not only defined as a rough drawing, but as a brief description. Here is another one—render. Today we instantly think of a computer-generated image. From the dictionary this time I find one meaning for render is to give back. I like that … giving back. I think, in a way that is the key to design. Lastly, we get to drafting. In racing, draft means to stay close behind. Well, drafting is usually done shortly after the drawing and rendering are complete.

So now that we know how these terms are defined and why they are important to us, the next question is how do we do them? In grammar school they teach you how to write the alphabet and the numerals. These are the basic and most simplistic forms of communication. From those building blocks, you learn how to read and write. You still have to have some information (dog, cat, tree) to turn the information into a vocabulary. Drawing and painting are exactly the same. First of all you need to have a graphic alphabet in order for it to work. The graphic alphabet is made up of all the things we discussed in Chapters 3 and 4—composition and color.

FIG. 5.1
Gustav Rehberger was my instructor at the Art Students League. He drew this sketch in two minutes, without a model!

Now that you understand the graphic alphabet, you’ve got to have the ideas for the information you want to write down. Drawing equals information. The better your information, the better the drawing. Masters of the art world like Raphael, da Vinci, and Michelangelo were so good at this, that the information they relayed to us was sublime. Once you reach sublime … you’ve got art. This level of drawing shows information that is so well organized, the transfer of information to the audience is perfectly clear. Keep in mind that sublime is very hard to achieve, but as long as we keep striving for it, we might just make it!

Let’s talk about insight for a moment. Insight is key to designing for the theatre as well as being a technician. Insight is observing the world around you and forming opinions. We do it everyday. Most of the time, we don’t realize we are doing it. Theatre artists need to consciously observe every small detail of the world around them. We then need to take that information and form an opinion. One of the reasons Shakespeare’s writing is so eternally viable is that it’s poetry, good poetry. But also, and more important, he had an amazing insight into the human condition. He could observe and form opinions. Then he translated these observations into amazing literary pieces. This is our hope. To observe, form opinions, and translate them onto the stage. Easy, right? Not exactly.

Drawing is like a puzzle where you need all of these characteristics, or pieces, to have a chance at making it good. All of these things coming together makes a good design. The well-designed part, however, is the result. You can’t start out with a good design! You have to work your way to it using all these techniques and parts of the process we’ve discussed earlier. The visual context we grow up in (our family, neighborhood, time frame) is the one we memorize. What we call good art and bad art is a matter of taste. Most people will criticize art based on the information that is either clearly conveyed or not. Does it look like a rabbit or a chair? Any artist who starts a new style is often thought to be crazy. It seems to take about 40 years for the general public to accept something new and catch up. When you have time, look up the following artists: Pollock, Rothko, Warhol, and Seurat. They all started new movements in the art world, and it took quite some time for their work to be accepted.

SAL’S TEST

Let’s put all this information to work for us. Are you ready? Here is your first test, and the most enjoyable test you’ll ever take. On a piece of paper, draw four things: a cube, a chair, a rabbit, and human being. Now I have to acknowledge that the test is not my own idea. Sal Tagliarino, one of my instructors from NYU, came up with this idea. I love it so much. I use it all the time, and think it is an important idea to put into this book. Now go draw your four images. When you’re done … keep reading.

FIG. 5.2
A lighting sketch for Ancient Voice of Children.

OK, now look at your drawing. This test is all about a way of learning to think and create. The outcome of those two things should be a relay of information. The test is used to explain information. Remember what I said earlier: Every day you should be observing and forming opinions. The test gives you several different challenges that are all easily solved if you’ve been observing the world around you and forming opinions.

Let’s take each of the drawings individually. The cube is all about mathematical information. You can’t even draw a cube properly unless you’ve taken plane geometry and learned the rules of 3D constructs. Keep in mind that it also helps to observe the world around you, like cardboard boxes, and notice how they are made as well. A cube, by its definition is the same exact length on all sides. A cube has a ratio of 1:1:1. This is very specific. If the cube you drew has a ratio closer to 1:1:2, then it’s a rectangle not a cube. Understand?

The chair is structural information. This is the kind of information that architects use the most. There are all sorts of rules that govern this. Gravity, strength, and balance come to mind. Does your chair look like it will float away? Does it look like someone could actually sit in it without it breaking? Does it look like all the feet touch the floor? Now here is the hard question? Does it look like a “specific” chair?

The rabbit is organic. Most people tend to draw a cute rabbit because they have no good reference of stock information in their head about rabbits. How many of us were lucky enough to grow up seeing rabbits every day? I bet your drawing is good if you had a pet rabbit when you were younger. The more you are around something, the more time you have to observe it and file that information away for a later time.

The artist Albrecht Durer didn’t make it up. He observed the rabbit. If you observe what exists, and you like it, methodically note it down with lines in the correct proportion you observe—your drawing should be as good as the thing you’re copying if you copy the right proportion. If you don’t copy the right proportion, you mess up. Now compare Durer’s very famous “Hare” to your little bunny rabbit. What are the differences? And don’t fall into the trap of saying his is better than mine! That is not the point of what we are doing. The point is not only to look, but to see the differences. A major difference is most likely in the details. Durer has drawn almost every hair. He has obviously studied this hare. Look further for ways to compare your drawing to his. What about the parts of the body? For example, did you draw a short-eared bunny or a long-eared one? Look at your line weight, shape, and value. Now look at Durer’s.

Now for the last drawing: the human being. We all know what they look like, right? I mean honestly, we are human beings! But have you ever taken the time to really look at the proportions of the human being. From a mathematical point of view it’s pretty amazing. Symmetry is considered to equal beauty. You may not like an individual’s specific symmetry, but we are all based on a symmetrical mold. Of course, everybody has a variation here or there, so let’s take a look for a second at the ideal person. No it’s not a super model!

PUTTING IT IN PROPORTION

Leonardo da Vinci read a paper by a Roman architect named Vitruvius. In his paper, Vitruvius described the basic proportions for the male human body and related them to mathematical calculations. For your reference, here is an excerpt from Vitruvius’s paper so you can see exactly what da Vinci read:

Da Vinci chose to try and illustrate this theory and called it the “Vitruvian Man.” The basic information from the full text goes something like this:

•   A palm is the width of 4 fingers.

•   A foot is the width of 4 palms.

•   A cubit (term for a measurement) is the width of 6 palms.

•   A man’s height is 4 cubits or 24 palms.

•   A pace is 4 cubits.

•   The length of a man’s outspread arms is equal to his height.

  

  FIG. 5.3
  Albrecht Durer’s 1502 “Hare.”

•   The distance from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-tenth of a man’s height.

•   The distance from the top of the head to the bottom of the chin is one-eighth of a man’s height.

•   The maximum width of the shoulders is one-quarter of a man’s height.

•   The distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is one-fifth of a man’s height.

•   The distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-eighth of a man’s height.

•   The length of the hand is one-tenth of a man’s height.

•   The distance from the bottom of the chin to the nose is one-third of the length of the head.

•   The distance from the hairline to the eyebrows is one-third of the length of the face.

•   The length of the ear is one-third of the length of the face.

Yikes! I bet you didn’t realize drawing had anything to do with math. Drawing does have to do with observing. Any “tool” you use to help you observe is a valid tool. Math helps. So use it. Re-read that list again; take it slowly and I bet it will all start to make sense. Go look at a photograph of yourself. Check the measurements—I bet they are pretty close. Now here is the thing, no one is actually perfect. But we are all based on the same mold.

The “Vitruvian Man” is the perfecting blending of art and science. Mathematical precision and a keen interest in proportion is what drove da Vinci forward with this piece. This is clear observation. You will need to use everything at your disposal in order to truly observe the world around you. Here is a fun idea: Wait until next year … then take the test again. Don’t wait for a teacher. Just do it. Keep the one you just finished. Put it away somewhere. Then next year do another test and compare them. I bet with every succeeding year your observations will be keener and more accurate. Notice I didn’t say “better.” Better is relative.

VARIOUS SUPPLIES AND TOOLS

Let’s start our next section by talking about what’s involved in drawing, rendering and drafting. It is important to have all the tools you will need within reach so you don’t have to go hunting around for something at a critical moment of creative inspiration. This is the point where you have to start making choices. There are many tools that all achieve similar results, but one is usually more appropriate for the job than another. If you have to go from New York City to Chicago you could fly, drive, take a train, ride your bike, or walk. All of these options would get you to Chicago. It depends greatly on the circumstances of your travel. Do you have to arrive by a certain time? Is your budget limited? Are you participating in a marathon fundraiser? Many things affect your choices. Got it?

FIG. 5.4
Various drawing pencils.

Let’s start with writing implements. You can use anything that will leave a mark. Of course, pens and pencils are much easier than grabbing a big hunk of burnt wood and trying to write with that. So let’s explore the options that are a little more realistic. I like to break it down into two categories: dry stuff and wet stuff.

DRY STUFF

Pencils

Let’s start with pencils. You may be thinking, “Yeah, yeah, I know what a pencil is!” I’m sure you do. But, do you know how many different kinds of pencils there are? The basic pencil that most people know has a graphite core surrounded by hexagonal-shaped wood with a pink eraser at the opposite end. If you’ve ever taken a standardized test in school and they required you to use a “#2 pencil,” this is the kind of pencil you used. Did you ever wonder what that “2” stood for?

Pencil graphite is labeled by hardness. The harder the lead, the lighter a mark it will make. Conversely, the softer the lead, the darker it is. Leads are divided into three groupings. The middle range that we use mostly to write with consists of H (harder), F (fine), and HB and B (blacker). Pencils ranging from 2B to 9B are softer and are used primarily for sketching. 2H to 9H are harder than average and used mostly for drafting. So your #2 pencil equals an HB on this scale. In order, the variety of leads available are (from hardest to softest) 9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, 4H, 3H, 2H, H, F, HB, B, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B, 8B, 9B.

Let’s dispel a quick misconception. The part of the pencil that does the writing is called the “lead,” however, it is not made of lead! Let me explain. Pencils originally had lead in them. It was sandwiched between two pieces of cedar wood. During the late 18th century, graphite became the substitute for lead. At this point it was also discovered that by mixing clay with the graphite you could get different rates of hardness and softness. More clay makes the pencil harder; more graphite makes it softer.

FIG. 5.5
Lead holder, leads, and mechanical pencil.

The next kind of pencil is a mechanical pencil. Most of you have seen this type as well. Mechanical pencils use a very thick “lead” that comes in the same hardness and softness as regular pencils. The diameter of the lead varies from 0.3 mm to 0.9 mm, and the mechanical pencil is specific to that size. There is no need to sharpen these leads as they are too thin. When the lead starts to get too short, you simply extend the lead, usually by pushing on the end cap of the pencil. A larger diameter lead, 2.0 mm, is used in a lead holder. This is a much thicker lead than the regular mechanical pencils and is usually used for drafting. This lead will not fit in a regular pencil sharpener. It needs what is called a lead pointer to sharpen the tip.

Charcoal is our next drawing option. Charcoal comes either compressed in pencils or blocks, or uncompressed in what is usually referred to as willow or vine charcoal. Willow and vine are usually much softer (and therefore darker) than compressed pencils and blocks.

Moving into color now, we are probably all familiar with color pencils. The big difference is that they come in a variety of colors instead of a variety of hardness and softness. Most colored pencils will get darker simply by pressing harder. That is the only way to control the light and dark qualities. The oil color pencil is much creamier in texture than the traditional colored pencil. Pastel pencils are able to draw sharp lines while still maintaining their ability to blend easily.

The last type of pencils we’ll discuss are watercolor pencils. These pencils are unique in that there are two very distinct ways of working with them. The first way to use them is like any other colored pencils—you draw. You can use them like this and they never change. However, if you draw and then use a brush with some water, the pencil will turn into paint! If you are going to do this, make sure you have watercolor paper. We’ll talk about paper choices soon.

Pastels and Crayons

Moving away from pencils, let’s talk about pastels and crayons. Pastels come in two varieties, soft and hard. Pastels usually have a much more intense color than pencils. The color is very concentrated. Soft pastels are more powdery, and therefore make more of a mess. But if you can work with the powder dust, they are a great tool. Hard pastels are, well, harder. This means less dust, less powder, and unfortunately less vibrant color. Both hard and soft pastels are often described as “chalky.” Oil pastels on the other hand are more “waxy.” They are less intense than regular pastels and also less messy.

FIG. 5.6
Colored pencils.

Our last dry item is the crayon. I am talking about the “64 pack” you grew up with and much, much more. Crayons take on all different forms for the adult artist. Crayons traditionally used a binder of wax. This means they were harder to blend and the colors tended to be less intense. Newer versions of crayons have different binders. These forms include everything from products resembling hard pastels to water-soluble crayons that work similarly to the watercolor pencils. The key to remember is that there are options. Try as many as you can before you decide what you like and what you don’t.

WET STUFF

Pens and Markers

Let’s start off the wet stuff category with pens. Basic writing pens include everything from ballpoints to the newer gel ink pens. Fountain and calligraphy pens are another type of pen. They have replaceable nibs. Nibs determine the thickness of the line. They also differ in terms of how they use ink. There are two ways they can get ink. First, there is the simple basic dip pen. You have to sit with a bottle of ink and continually dip the nib into the ink bottle. The other style has a refillable bladder, cartridge holder, or other replaceable ink supply. Technical pens come in a variety of sizes, similar to mechanical pencils. Each size produces a different thickness of line.

FIG. 5.7
Pastels.

Let’s talk about markers. Markers contain a hidden reservoir of ink that is pulled into the tip in order to write. There are many different styles of markers on the market today. Many are known by their brand name only. Let me try and explain the different styles.

Permanent markers use ink that is waterproof. This category includes the brand name Sharpie® among others, as well as all styles of highlighters.

FIG. 5.8
Markers.

Artists of all kinds use layout and brush markers to do a variety of sketching techniques. Brush markers are just what they sound like. The tip is shaped liked a paintbrush instead of like a pen. Layout markers often come with a writing tip at each end, usually in different sizes. Brand names to think of in relation to this type are Pantone® and Prismacolor®.

Paint markers are an aptly named hybrid. They are in the style of a regular marker, however, they actual dispense paint instead of ink. This can be useful for any number of reasons. A brand name to know is Pentel®.

Paint

Our next topic is paint. Let’s start with watercolor. As the name suggests, watercolor paints are pigment that has been suspended in water and can therefore be thinned with water. Transparency, or at least the ability for it, is the main characteristic that sets watercolor apart from other paints. You can see the paper through the colors and layers of paint. These paints come in both tubes and pans. Tubes of watercolor come in many quality levels. The biggest differences are the intensity of the pigment and range of colors. The paint-by-number kit that you had when you were little most likely had pans of paint. Pans of paint still exist but are no longer the norm. Similar to tubes, they come in a range of qualities. Gouache is another type of watercolor paint. The difference between regular watercolor and gouache is that gouache is opaque. It is often used in conjunction with watercolor paint for the shadows and highlights.

Acrylic paint is our next topic. Acrylic paint differs from watercolor in that the pigment is suspended in an acrylic polymer emulsion. It can be thinned with water, but once it is dry it becomes water resistant. Oil paint is rarely used in theatre as it has a very slow drying time. As I bet you can guess, oil paint gets it name because the pigment is suspended in … oil! Oil paint is opaque. Oils are often applied in fairly heavy layers. This gives them a deep color saturation that is often not possible in any other medium.

FIXING THE OOPS

Now I prefer to think of it as a design change, rather than a mistake! However, there will always be the inevitable “oops.” There are a number of different eraser styles from which to choose. The type of eraser you use depends entirely on what you are drawing with and how much of an “oops” you have. Let’s go through each kind of eraser and look at the differences.

FIG. 5.9
Erasers.

Let’s start with the basics. A pink eraser is on the end of most of our pencils. The brand name for the bigger version of this is the Pink Pearl®. It has beveled ends for getting into those small details. This is a longtime favorite, as it leaves no smudges on the paper. Gum erasers are another popular type of eraser. They are made of a soft, coarse rubber and work really well if you are trying to erase a large area. They leave a residue on the paper and are not extremely precise.

Another form of the gum eraser is the dry cleaning pad. This is a mesh fabric pouch that is stuffed with powdered gum erasers and then sewn closed. This is a much messier process. You are meant to tap the pad on your drawing before or after you finish. It will remove smudge marks and oily deposits such as visible fingerprints.

Kneaded erasers are known for removing pencil, chalk, charcoal, and pastel. You can use them to create a highlight in a drawing or to make a change to part of the image. These erasers have wonderful powers of rejuvenation. You can pull this eraser apart slightly, fold it into itself, and it is clean. You can shape it to a point for getting into fine detail. Another benefit is that kneaded erasers leave no residue on the paper.

FIG. 5.10
Pads of paper.

Vinyl is another kind of eraser. This is a great eraser for use on drafting vellum, film, and tracing paper. It rarely smudges and leaves a minimum of residue. Brand names for this style include Sanford Magic Rub® and Alvin Erase Clear®. Vinyl erasers will remove pencil and some pen.

There are electric erasers that can either plug into an outlet or run on batteries. They are great for doing large amounts of erasing, particularly on drafting. Refills for this type of eraser can include white vinyl, pink styles, or special ink erasers. The ink erasers are similar to compressed sand paper. You have to be very careful when using them or you can rip a hole in your paper!

I keep mentioning residue left behind. How do you fix that, you may ask? Well, the mighty and all-powerful drafting brush is the tool of choice. It has a long handle and very soft bristles. It will whisk away eraser gunk without damaging or smudging your drawing. I usually have several of these handy, mostly because my cats like to play with them.

When all else fails, there are always correction fluid and tape. They come in a variety of colors now. They are opaque and will cover up just about anything. However, they do not blend into the rest of your drawing very well. So use this option only as a last resort.

PAPER

There are many different types of paper that come in a variety of sizes and shapes. They all have very specific purposes, however. Newsprint paper is often used for quick sketches with pencil or charcoal. Newsprint is an inexpensive paper and doesn’t hold up to repeated erasing or pressure with the drawing tool. Drawing paper is sturdier than newsprint and is meant for a dry medium—pencil, charcoal, pastel, and crayon. There are specific drawing papers intended for use specifically with pencil or with charcoal. The major difference is the “tooth” or texture of the paper.

Illustration board is heavier and meant for a wet medium like pen and ink, marker, watercolor, and airbrush. Watercolor paper is just what it sounds like, paper for painting with watercolor paints. Watercolor paper is very specific and comes in a number of finishes that vary the texture. The texture changes how the paint adheres to the paper, giving very different effects.

For hand drafting, vellum is used. It is translucent so that you can trace an object from another drawing below the vellum. Speaking of tracing, there is actual tracing paper that is similar to the tissue paper you use when you are wrapping a gift. It is a more fragile paper, tearing easily and not being of archive quality. It is, however, great for quick sketches during research or meetings.

FIG. 5.11
Scale rulers.

TOOLS

Let me start by talking about hand drawing and drafting and the tools you will need for each. This discussion applies to all areas of technical theatre! Whether you are drawing a ground plan, a light plot, a clothing pattern, or the spread of an effect projector’s lens, you will need the skills we are about to discuss. Later in this chapter we will discuss computer software and hardware. Keep in mind that if you understand the basics of hand drafting, it will make your computer drafting go faster and be easier to understand.

FIG. 5.12
Photo of a designer’s studio with drafting table with drafting machine, chair, and lamp.

The scale rule is possibly the most important tool of all. It is the basis for our shorthand way of drawing. I carry one with me at all times; you just never know. Here is how it works. If you wanted to draw the theatre in its actual size, you’d need a pretty big piece of paper. And that is not practical. Scale allows you to draw things smaller, or in some cases larger, than they actually are. You have to keep the proportion right, so you choose one of several scales in order to have your object fit on the page. You will need a scale rule not only for creating your drawings, but also for reading other people’s drawings.

In the theatre we use the scales of , ¼, ½, 1, 1½, and 3 inches. There are lots of others but let’s limit ourselves to these. A scale rule is normally a triangular-shaped ruler with 6 sides containing 11 different scales. One of the 6 sides is a regular ruler, just like you are used to looking at. The other sides have two scales on each side. One scale reads from right to left, the other from left to right. Let’s pick one scale and I’ll explain how it works.

Drawing in ½-inch scale means that every 12 inches in reality will equal ½ inch on the paper. It’s that simple! Instead of making you figure out all of the math in your head, someone came up with the brilliant idea to put the different conversions on a ruler. Trust me it saves a lot of time! It may sound really confusing, but after you’ve made your first drawing this way, it will seem as easy as the proverbial riding of a bike.

The next thing you need is a surface on which to draw. Drafting tables are often used for sketching and layout as well as for drafting. This is because you can change the angle of the tabletop to whatever is comfortable for you. Sometimes I sit while I draw and stand while I draft. I can adjust the table height and angle to whatever is the most comfortable. You will need a good drafting chair or drafting stool, one that goes up and down to adjust to the height of your table. It should be comfortable and support your back. You will sit in this chair for long periods of time so make sure it’s comfy. Next, you need light! Drafting table lights usually clamp on to your table. This allows you to have consistent light whenever you change the angle of your desk. A good fluorescent lamp will give you a bright, even amount of light. The other nice thing about fluorescent is that it doesn’t get hot. If you are working underneath the light for hours at a time, it is good to keep cool.

Most tables come with a parallel rule or offer an upgrade to a drafting machine. A parallel rule is a straight edge that travels up and down your table on two cables. The cables are on either side of your table. The rule typically has a brake to hold it in place when you let go. The parallel rule allows you to draw horizontal lines that are consistently parallel to each other. A drafting machine tracks on left and right and up and down on one arm that is mounted to the table. The machine has two scale rulers, one vertical and one horizontal. The main advance in the drafting machine is that it can adjust to any angle you need. The older method you can choose, and the cheapest, is a T-Square. The T-Square is a tool shaped like a T. The short part of the T leans against the side of your table. By sliding it up and down the length of your table, the long part of the T becomes an edge you can use to draw a horizontal line. It is a replacement for the parallel rule. The T-Square doesn’t lock into place, it doesn’t track easily, and it has no brake. However, it is more portable, meaning you can use it on any table you have to sit down at.

OK, you’re doing great. You can draw a horizontal line. What about vertical lines? Well, there is a great way to draw vertical and angled lines. The tool you need is called a triangle. There are many different styles, and you will most likely need at least two or three. There are two ways to consider which triangle to purchase. The first and most important consideration is the angle of the triangle. Triangles come in two fixed configurations: 30/60 degree and 45/90 degree. You will need both of these, and using them in combination will get you many more angles. Another consideration is the adjustable triangle. They are usually able to adjust from 0 to 90 degrees. I do not recommend using an adjustable exclusively. I find the best way to go is to use a combination of fixed and adjustable. The other consideration that affects all triangles is their overall size. They can come as small as 4 inches on the longest side all the way up to 18 inches. All triangles should be see-through so that you can line up the edge of the triangle to your drawing underneath.

FIG. 5.13
T-Square.

Now that you can draw straight lines in many directions, what happens if you need a curve? Not a problem. Let me introduce you to the French Curve. It is a template for drawing curves. It has curved edges and several scroll-shaped cutouts in the middle. The French curve is used by tracing one of its edges. Then you carefully move the template to the end of the curve you just drew, and continue the curve tracing the template. You repeat this as many times as you need to in order to create the proper curve. You can now repeat this curve, using the template again, if it appears somewhere else in your design. This is a technique that needs practice, but it can produce great effects.

FIG. 5.14
Triangles.

There are many different templates that may come in handy. Scenic designers can find templates with furniture in different scales. Lighting designers can find a wide variety of lighting fixture templates. Everybody can use shape templates that can include circles, squares, triangles, arrows, or just about any shape you can think of. They come in handy whether you are drawing, drafting, or just doodling.

Another type of template is the erasing shield. In my opinion this is one of the coolest things ever invented. It is a small, thin piece of polished steel with different shapes cut out of it. You lay the shield over your drawing, specifically the part you want to erase. Then while holding it in place, you erase the offending line without the possibility of your eraser touching anything else on the paper. It’s like magic, only better!

FIG. 5.15
French curves and flexible curve.

Let’s talk about lettering for a minute. Sloppy lettering can make a good drawing look terrible. If you want to look professional, practice your lettering! It is the quickest, easiest way to make your presentation jump up a couple of notches. The Ames Lettering Guide is going to be your best friend. It is yet another template. The left side is at a 90-degree angle to the bottom of the template; use this for making your vertical lines. The right side is at a 60-degree angle; use it for angled letters like v and w, for example.

Now for the really cool part! The center of this template is a circle that rotates. Inside the circle are a variety of little holes. You rotate the circle until you get the little holes the right distance apart for the desired height of your letters. Put your pencil in any of the little holes, and slide the guide along your parallel rule or T-Square to make guidelines.

The last tool to think about is tape. Drafting tape and drafting dots are made by a variety of companies. This tape looks like regular masking tape, but it is less sticky. That means you can pull it up without leaving a residue or tearing your paper. This is important, as you will sometimes need to pull up the tape, reposition your paper, and put down new tape.

COMPUTERS

Some people use computers with software … OK, most of us do. Heck, I’m sitting at a computer right now writing this book. Computers are the way of not only the future, but they are they way of today! I still maintain that learning hand drafting and drawing will always be helpful. The conventions for one technique are the same as another. It’s really only a matter of whether you have to go to someone with a blueprint machine or a plotter! So, let’s talk hardware and software.

Hardware first! The big debate I always hear is “Should I use a Windows computer or Apple computer?” Well, it’s easy. It’s the simplest choice of all. This is a true no-brainer! The answer is … it doesn’t matter. Get whichever you are more comfortable with. You will, almost always, find programs that are made specifically for your computer’s operating system. All of the big software companies have finally figured out that both platforms are here to stay. You’ll see what I mean when we talk about software.

FIG. 5.16
Drafting templates and erasing shields.

FIG. 5.17
Ames Lettering Guide.This is a favorite of mine, as it can be adjusted in many ways. I always keep one with me!

When you are buying a new computer, my advice is simple. Get the fastest processor with the biggest hard drive and the most ram! Whatever you buy will be outdated within two years. You have a better chance of keeping your machine longer if you get the newest, best, and greatest now. The same advice goes for peripherals: digital cameras, scanners, printers, plotters … everything. We are not going to suddenly discover that we want to store everything at low resolution, right? So, use your student discount and get the best you can!

Now for the software. There are specific programs that everybody uses. Before I give you the list, I have to share something. Long before there were dedicated programs to theatre needs, we all still got the paperwork done. So keep in mind that if you don’t find exactly what you need, be creative! Find a work-around for whatever task you’re trying to do. We are theatre people, we’re creative, it is what we do for a living!

Let’s first discuss the specific software developed with our intended purposes in mind. Let me explain something first. The lighting department generates more paperwork, I think, than any other department. Various pieces of paperwork are updated on a daily basis, sometimes even hourly during tech. So the first thought that comes to mind is John McKernon’s Lightwright®. Lightwright began life officially as ALD® (Assistant Lighting Designer) in 1982 on a TRS-80 computer! What humble beginnings, and now it is the industry standard for lighting paperwork! Lightwright is the new name for the program, and new versions come out regularly. Lightwright works on both the Mac and PC.

If you want to try one integrated software package that can generate all versions of the required lighting paperwork, try Stage Research’s Light Shop®, Soft Plot®, and Soft Plot 3D®. The Soft Plot programs allow you to create and maintain all the necessary paperwork. Light Shop allows you to view the photometric data of over 1,500 fixtures. Don’t worry, we’ll discuss photometrics in Chapter 10. Keep in mind that many people will use your paperwork. Everyone will need to use the software in order to make updates and changes.

Previsualization is a hot topic today for many designers. Often referred to as pre-vis, it means just what you think. It’s a way to “see” what the show will look like before you get to the theatre. Everyone has very strong opinions about it. Some say it’s a waste of time while others say they wouldn’t do a show without it. Pre-vis is a slow process. It is used mostly when time in the theatre will be a minimum. Software today has gotten to a point where you can actually cue lights in the computer, then load the disk into your light board and run cues. It’s not a fast or easy process though.

Lighting and scenery all require drafting many plans, sections, and other drawings for every show. Computer-aided drafting is now the standard. The granddaddy of all CAD programs is AutoCAD® by Autodesk. It is a massive, and expensive, program used primarily by architects. If you have access to it, try it out. There are many plug-ins now to help us in theatre work. The most popular program for this purpose, however, is Vectorworks® by Nemetschek. Vectorworks has worked closely with the theatre industry to create palettes for scenic objects, trusses, and hardware. There is also a version called Spotlight® that allows for the insertion of lighting instruments. This is truly one of the rare times when a commercial software package has actually catered to a small niche industry.

Costumers don’t feel left out. There are a few options for you as well. Dress Shop® and My Pattern Designer® were developed by the same team to cater to two different markets. Patternmaker® is another option created by people with a theatre background who understand our needs.

Dress Shop has two versions, Standard and Pro, and is geared toward those of us who make clothing for others. Standard includes 150 patterns with a wide assortment of mix-and-match possibilities. You can also vary how many measurements you want to take, or if you want to use standard sizes. Pro expands on all the options within Standard adding more patterns and more flexibility.

My Pattern Designer is aimed at the person who is at home making clothing for him- or herself, although it will work just as well for the costumer. It is easier to use than Dress Shop. As it was designed with the home seamstress in mind, you can get started with as few as five key measurements. Combining different pieces from styles within a large library creates customized patterns.

Patternmaker has three different versions that successively increase the patterning options you have. Patternmaker allows you to work from standard sizing or from your own measurements. The three versions are Home, Expert, and Marker. The Home version works with basic garments. Expert adds the capability to use a digitizer and Marker helps with cost estimates.

There is software available that will do very specific tasks to aid our jobs in the theatre. There are other packages that are generic to our industry and break down into four basic categories of graphics software: 2D graphic creation and manipulation, 3D graphic creation, video editing, and compositing. There are many software packages available for each of these categories. Before we get into the different options available, let’s discuss a subject that will influence the whole conversation. Intrigued? Read on.

Have you ever heard the terms raster and vector? The software is divided between these types of processing for the images. Let me explain. Vector-based images are created using mathematical formulas to locate each point. Lines are then drawn to connect the dots. Raster, on the other hand, is a pixel-based technology. Now here is the important part. If you need to enlarge a part of the image, vector can scale infinitely larger without losing any resolution. Raster, on the other hand, becomes lower resolution instantly on changing the size. Keep this in mind when you are creating images. Choose your software depending on what you will eventually need to do with it. If you need to work in raster, work at the size you will need when you are done. Otherwise you will waste a lot of time and have to recreate things.

So let’s talk about 2D graphic software. The king of the raster hill is Adobe’s Photoshop®. Another option that performs slightly different is Corel’s Painter®. These are both awesome and powerful software that are raster-based programs. Adobe has a vector-based product named Illustrator®. It is also the king of the hill for what it does. Adobe has kept up with the needs of the market. All these programs are available for both Windows and Macintosh platforms. So check them out if you don’t already know them.

FIG. 5.18
Photoshop rendering for industrial, designed by Tom Cariello.

Three-dimensional creation offers a wider range of programs. Cinema 4D® by Maxon and SoftImage® and Maya® (both by Autodesk) are a few that come to mind quickly. LightWave® by NewTek is another that focuses primarily on lighting but also does modeling. Vectorworks by Nemetschek is a 2D CAD program that also has a 3D component. It is nicely integrated. You can go back and forth between each module seamlessly.

There is such easy access to digital video now. Many designers are hoping to incorporate video, either prerecorded or live, into their designs. Video editing software becomes critical for prerecorded footage. The last thing an audience wants to see is the rough cut of a video thrown in over the top of an ongoing performance. Video should highlight, accent, extend—not run over! There are two main programs that work on standard computers, Apple’s Final Cut Pro® and Adobe Premier®. Both work well and perform exactly like the bigger cousins that run on proprietary hardware. Editing, timeline, trimming, effects, color correction, audio, and fonts are all available tools to you.

Lastly, let’s discuss compositing. You’ve got your stills and your video all ready. Do you think you’re finished? Well, you’re not. Perhaps the most critical step is left to do. Now you have to put it together and pray it all fits the way you’ve been hoping and dreaming. There is one leader in this particular part of the pack: Adobe After Effects®.

Perhaps the most important thing to ask yourself is: What will my playback machine be? After Effects can produce professional output to film, video, DVD, and the Web. It contains powerful masking tools, keying and matte tools, expert visual effects, and text animation and titling effects. Keep in mind it’s an Adobe product. Any graphics you created in another Adobe product easily integrate.

This is just the tip of the iceberg in terms of software. There are many more options available to you. I can’t list them all here as there isn’t room and the list is everchanging. The Internet is truly your friend on this subject. Search around and see what you can find. Keep looking for newer versions and better options. The more we expect, the more the developers will give us!

PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

OK, now that we’ve really gone through drawing and the potential tools, let’s approach it from a slightly more technical side. Let’s talk about perspective drawing and projection. First let’s define the terms. Perspective projection is a type of drawing that uses a 2D technique to approximate a 3D object. Now we are going to look at how to do this from a very technical point of view. There are many factors that go into a good perspective drawing. Let’s start to break it down.

There are three main concepts to understand before we go much further. They are vanishing points, the horizon line, and foreshortening. Let’s start with vanishing points. The most common forms of perspective are one-point, two-point, and three-point perspective. The name refers to the number of vanishing points used to construct the drawing. Vanishing point refers to the point in space where two parallel lines “seem” to converge. Think: railroad tracks. We know in reality they don’t ever touch, but they sure look like they do in photographs.

Every set of parallel lines can have its own vanishing point. Most often, however, sets of lines share a vanishing point. The most common scenarios for theatre, as I’ve said, are the one-, two-, and three-point drawings. Think for a second about an architect’s sketch for a new building. How many parallel lines do they have? Lots! You can keep adding more vanishing points to a drawing, as long as it helps to further the clarity of the drawing. If it just makes it more confusing, you might want to consider limiting yourself. Now consider this: What if you are drawing a landscape with lots of nature such as trees, flowers, and birds? If there are no parallel lines, there will be no vanishing points. This is often referred to as zero-point perspective.

The horizon line is usually defined as the line that separates the earth from the sky. In our usage, it is the horizontal line that comes closest to the height of your eye. It divides the entire drawing into two parts. Choosing where to put the horizon line will determine a great deal about what your drawing will look like. The horizon line tells us where we, the viewer, are standing to view the object that has been drawn. Are we below it or above it or right in the middle of it? This will affect not only the outcome of the drawing, but also the feel of it.

FIG. 5.19
One-point perspective photo with a bit of a twist.

The last term I mentioned earlier is foreshortening. So far we have been talking about placing the object to be drawn directly in front of us. It might possibly be above or below our line of sight, but it is centered on us. What happens is we move it off to the side? Instead of standing on the railroad tracks and looking straight down the rails, what happens if you stand off to the side and look down the rails? The rails will appear shorter. This is obviously an optical illusion. The rails did not get shorter simply because you moved your position over. This is foreshortening.

OK, now that we have some background to work from, let’s dive into one-point perspective. This is the traditional railroad or street photo. The viewer is usually standing in the middle of the road or rail, looking straight ahead. There is one vanishing point in the distance centered between two parallel lines. As the lines move toward the vanishing point, they are drawn closer together. Keep in mind that this is an illusion. The lines don’t actually converge. The point (if you pardon the pun) is to draw something on paper and give it the illusion of three dimensions. It is that simple to create on paper, making the illusion of distance where none actually exists.

Two-point perspective can be used to draw rails or roads as well as many other options. Let’s think about a house for a second. If you stand at the corner of the house, there will be a side on your left and a side on your right. Both of those sides go back to opposing vanishing points. Now here is the cool part. The walls on the back side that we don’t see are also drawn with the same vanishing points. Check it out!

Three-point perspective is next. It is the most complicated form that I will address in this book. Keep in mind that there is much more to learn about perspective drawing. This is just a short introduction. Three-point usually has the effect of making the object appear over our heads or below our feet. Always keep in mind that the further the vanishing points are from your object, the gentler the angles of perspective will be.

There are several ways to create a perspective drawing. As we have already done, you can draw it completely freehand without any drawing tools other than paper and pencil. When drawing perspective by hand, I find it easiest to work on paper with a preprinted grid. The grid gives me an instant reference as I begin to draw. Add some grid paper and a straight edge … and you can become a little more mechanically accurate. Computers can also simulate this technique. Now here is the funny part. Sometimes, and only sometimes, you will ignore the rules I’ve just laid out and create a “different” version of perspective. The important thing to remember is that you have to know and understand the rules before you can change them. Oliver Smith knew how to use the rules … and then break them for his purpose. We called it Oliver Perspective! But nobody can do this at first!!

FIG. 5.20
Photograph of the Mid-Hudson Bridge in Poughkeepsie, NY across the Hudson River showing a clear horizon line.

FIG. 5.21
Photo showing foreshortening of a tree limb.

For now let’s go back to the rules. Let’s look at the development of a two-point perspective, step by step. The first figure shows a ground plan from a show. When you look at a ground plan, the next step is to figure out what it’s going to look like standing up. This is the basis for a sketch. Let’s get started. We first have to determine the floor line of the existing ground plan as well as the horizon line and base line for the sketch. The next thing to do is determine what vanishing points you want to use. For sketches like this, we often use a vanishing point close to what our eye line would be if we were standing in the drawing, the average person being about 6′-0″. Then we have to draw leader lines to correspond with the different walls on the ground plan and where they will intersect in the new sketch.

Now we’re ready to start drawing. All you need are paper, a pencil, and a straight edge. Start on the far left or right. Determine how tall your walls will be and mark that height on your paper. This is why grid paper comes in handy. I marked out 12 grid spaces to make my walls 12′-0″ tall. Once you’ve determined the height, draw your outside wall line. If the top or bottom of a wall is parallel to the top of your paper, draw the top and bottom of the first wall straight across to the next leader line. If the wall is angled, or you’ve moved on to the next wall, use the vanishing point on the far side of the drawing from your wall to connect the top and bottom of the next wall to the first.

FIG. 5.22
A perspective sketch, circa 1913.

The vertical lines on the walls stay vertical. The angled lines drawn from the vanishing point to the last wall determine their length. Continue drawing each wall until you reach the middle of the sketch. Now, start again from the other side, using the opposite vanishing point. When you reach the middle again, your sketch should be almost done. The only thing left to do is to add any openings: doors, windows, arches. If they are square you follow the same rules. The vertical lines stay vertical and the horizontal lines still reference the vanishing point on the opposite side of the stage.

FIG. 5.23
Two-point perspective, step 1.

FIG. 5.24
Two-point perspective, step 2.

Perspective drawing can be as simple or complicated as you choose or need it to be. I’ve gone over the basics. Feel free to experiment from here and play around with it. Keep in mind that the placement of the vanishing point(s) determines how distorted the final sketch is. Try making several different sketches based on different vanishing points and horizon lines to see how very different they look. Now here is the important part. Which of the following three sketches most “correctly” represents the scenery?

The answer is all or none. What? Well, the vanishing point changes make the perspective more extreme, which may or may not be accurate. The horizon line changing means the audience is moving around the theatre. One obvious note, if you moved the horizon line up into the ceiling … obviously the audience won’t be sitting there! Keep in mind a very important fact. Anything you can draw can be built exactly as it was drawn. It might take a big budget or a very long schedule, but it can be done. So be careful what you draw and make sure it shows what has been bouncing around in your head. Otherwise you mislead the director, and everyone is in for a big surprise when the load-in starts.

FIG. 5.25
Two-point perspective, step 3.

FIG. 5.26
“My Fair Lady,” Higgin’s Study watercolor rendering, by Oliver Smith. © Rosaria Sinisi.

Your sketch looks great, except the stage is empty! Now you have to add furniture, props, and people. Once your line drawing of a sketch is populated, it is time to add tone (light and shadow) to the sketch. This will make the black-and-white drawing come to life. Before you can begin you have to think about how the set will be lit. Lighting becomes critical to making the scenery sketch look real and alive. More important, lighting is critical to make the scenery look at least similar to how it will appear in the theatre.

RENDERING

Our next topic will be rendering. This is the step where you will definitely be showing your work to the director and other designers and potentially adding color as well. The initial perspective sketch may just be your way of working that eventually turns into a rendering. It may never be for others to see. But at some point you, as the set designer, have to show some representation of the scenery to the director. Otherwise your budget will never get approved! So on to the rendering step.

So the sketch turns into the rendering. Is there a difference between a sketch and a rendering? It can be just semantics, but here is how I approach it. The color sketch is part of your process prior to the rendering. Sketching is traditionally known as being a quicker, more relaxed process. Keep in mind that when you show the director and other designers your drawing, sketch, or rendering, one of the first things they will react to is the “feel” of it.

When you are working on a sketch, sometimes you have to back away from it for a little while. When you come back to it fresh, you may see something that you didn’t see before. You may choose to keep this new “feature” or get rid of it. Just keep in mind that designing is not an accident waiting to happen. It should be considered. Then if, as I call it, a “happy accident” happens, you will be ready to decide if you want to keep it or not.

The term rendering is usually used for a full-color, finished sketch, finished being the key word. You should now have the furniture, props, and actors on the set. You should have chosen a specific moment in time from the play. The actors should be in place, the light cue should be evident. Your entire design team will look at this rendering for clues as to how you envision the final production.

Keep in mind, now that you’ve finished your rendering, that there is another way to work. You can skip the perspective sketch and rendering completely. What?! Why didn’t I tell you that before? Well if you skip these two very important steps, they will be replaced most likely with a model. A model is a 3D representation of the scenery instead of a 2D sketch. We will talk about models in Chapter 6. Just keep it in the back of your head for now.

DRAFTING

Let me start by saying that drafting is drafting. What do I mean? Well, drafting is meant to convey information, not an emotion. There are certain things that have to be in a pack of draftings in order to give all the information needed to build the set. Now here is the key. Are you ready? It doesn’t matter whether you are hand drafting or using a CAD program. How can that be? Well, it actually doesn’t matter if you do your sketch by hand or in a program like Photoshop either. What matters, and the only thing that matters, is that you give out the information needed in a way it can be used. The techniques, concepts, and ideas are all the same. Remember in Chapter 3 when I talked about focus? Well it’s the same thing here. You want the drafting to have a focus so people know where to look first, where to look second, and so forth.

Let’s begin by drafting an orthographic projection. Orthographic projection is a way of representing a 3D objection in two dimensions using multiple views. Have you ever taken a flat piece of cardboard and turned it into a box? Well that is the idea. Let’s say we are going to build a table. We first need to visualize the table inside a box. We then project each side of the table onto the surrounding box. Then we unfold the box, laying it flat. This creates two plan views, top and bottom, as well as four side views.

It is the information from each of these views that the carpenter or scene shop will need to build the table. This is the basis for all the information you will generate in your own drawings. If you are not the designer, it is the basis for all the information you will need in order to create the design. We started this chapter by talking about using drawing to get the ideas out of your head and onto paper. Once the sketch is approved, you need to break down each part of the set into smaller pieces so the scene shop can build it.

Let’s talk about some of the standardized conventions. The first thing you’re going to do most likely is draw a line. Well, what kind of line? A line is not just a line. Are you drawing the center line of the theatre, a leg, a border, or scenery? It makes a difference. Each of these types of lines has a convention for how it should be drawn. USITT’s Graphic Standards Board has established all of the conventions we will discuss next. If you don’t follow the conventions, your drawings will be confusing at best and unreadable at worst.

We discussed line weight in Chapter 3. It comes back again now. You have to combine the correct line weight with the correct line style in order to follow the established conventions. Take a look at the examples below. These are a few of the many examples you will need. A drafting class will go into much more detail, but this should give you a start. If you’ve ever seen a ground plan or section, I bet these examples will look pretty familiar.

•   Border—a thick double line.

•   Plaster Line—a thin dashed line.

•   Center Line—a thin line of long-short-long lines with note of “CL” near lower edge.

•   Section—uniform hatching on diagonal lines.

•   Leader Line—a thin solid line with or without an arrow at the end.

•   Dimension/Extension Lines—a thin line.

•   Break Line—a thin line that extends beyond the edges of the break.

FIG. 5.27
Sketch by George Allison for a Berkshire Opera production of The Rape of Lucretia, by Benjamin Britten.

FIG. 5.28
John Lee Beatty hand drafting for a production of Neil Simon’s The Odd Couple.

Next let’s talk about lettering and labeling. Drawing is one thing; writing is a whole other thing. This is one area where hand drafting and CAD drafting differ. I’ll talk about each separately. There is one simple piece of advice to follow for lettering. Make it simple and legible. Remember the goal is to convey information. If you try to get to fancy, no one will be able to read what you’ve written. Most people feel that a straight, clean sans serif typeface is best. My feeling is to add a little style if you want, just don’t let it get in the way of the main goal: conveying information.

FIG. 5.29
To begin an orthographic projection you must identify the different sides and begin to see how they are connected, as shown on the top. The final orthographic projection on the bottom shows each side lying flat to each other.

When most people first start to hand draft they are okay with the drawing but they totally stress out when it comes to the lettering. Lettering takes practice, but there are a couple of hints that will help you do a better job right away. First, remember earlier in this chapter when I talked about the Ames Lettering Guide? Well, get one! The most important thing to know about lettering, and how to make it look good, is consistency. Use a triangle to keep the vertical part of the letters vertical. Use a parallel or T-Square to keep the horizontal parts of the letters horizontal. This is a good start. Most drafting-style letters use true verticals while changing the horizontals into angles for a little extra flair.

CAD drafting and lettering is a whole different thing. It’s easier for the most part but you still have to pay attention to details. So you’re in your CAD program, you type in the text, and you think, “No problem, I’m done, what is so hard?” Well, you have to choose a font, a size, the attributes … there are many more choices. The good news is that there are a number of fonts available now that actually look like hand-drafted lettering. Once you pick a font, you have to choose the size. Most important, you then have to stick with that font—remember consistency. With hand drafting, we’re usually lucky if we can get three different sizes of lettering on the paper. You can choose 10 point or 11 point or whatever looks good. This is an option the hand drafter doesn’t have. So use your tools well. Vary the font options and the size to help give focus to what is most important.

Our next topic is dimensioning. Dimensions are used to confirm actual drawn sizes. Whoever reads your drafting will most likely have a scale rule in their hand. A quick glance at your dimensioning will let them know if the drawing is accurate. The scale rule will confirm it. Dimensions are usually read when looking at the drafting from the bottom side. If you need to rotate a dimension based on the object or other spacing, make sure it reads form the right side. This is a convention that works well as long as you are consistent.

There are three different styles of dimensions:Linear dimensions are used when you are measuring in a straight line; Arc Dimensions are used if you are measuring some kind of angle or radius; and the multiple dimension style is used when you are measuring several things in a row from the same starting point.

There are certain conventions already established for drafting common objects. This makes your job easier. Somebody else already figured out how to draw a wall, floors, and curtains. You just need to use their symbols as a guide. It’s like learning another language. But once you’ve drawn them once, it will be second nature to you. In fact, most designer’s doodles use these same conventions because it is a common language we all understand.

Walls on a set are divided up into small, manageable parts called flats. When you are drawing a ground plan you want to show the flats and where they are joined. There are two ways to do this. Solid walls are usually not the whole set. Usually there are going to be openings in the walls for doors, arches, and windows, which all have specific ways of being drawn. More on this in Chapter 7.

The scenic floor has become much more complicated in past years. It used to be that unless there was a second level, like a balcony, the floor was just painted. Now full-stage decks are constructed to aid in automation of moving scenic units. Stairs and ramps are also used more frequently. There is so much information to convey about the flooring that there is usually an entire drawing dedicated to the floor. More on this in Chapter 7.

Curtains are the next topics. We are not talking about window curtains here! In the theatre all fabric items are called soft goods. All the fabric that hangs over and around the stage has different names depending on its function. Depending on what it does and how it hangs, it is also drawn differently. Some curtains are meant to touch the stage at all times, some are meant to never touch the stage, and some move around sometimes touching and sometimes not. More on this in Chapter 7.

FIG. 5.30
A drawing sample from Hudson Scenic showing different kinds of dimensioning.

Our next convention is one of the finishing touches to a drafting. It is the title block. A title block must be placed on every drafting. It also needs to be placed in the same place on each drawing—remember consistency. The placement varies depending on the type of title block. If you use a floating title block it should be placed in the lower right corner of the drawing. If you use a docked title block, meaning it runs along an entire side of the drawing, it is usually placed on the right edge or bottom edge of the drawing. The most important thing is to keep it consistent from one drawing to the next within a pack of draftings.

Regardless of the type of block you choose to use, or its placement, it contains very important information. Information that should be included:

FIG. 5.31
John Lee Beatty hand drafting for a production of Neil Simon’s The Odd Couple.

FIG. 5.32
Scott Pask sample title block.

•   Name of producing organization.

•   Name of production.

•   Drawing title.

•   Drawing number.

•   Predominant scale of the drawing.

•   Date the drawing was drafted.

•   Designer of the production.

•   Drafter, if different from the designer.

•   Drawing approval, if applicable.

•   Revisions, if applicable

•   If it is a digital drafting, the file name can be put in the title block for reference.

•   Union stamp, if applicable.

If there is a logo for the producer or production, feel free to put that in the title block instead of plain text. It helps make the drawing unique and easily recognizable. Any other information that you think is appropriate to all drawings can be added at your discretion. Additional information you may want to include:

•   Location of the venue.

•   Director of the production.

•   Other members of the production team.

•   Lighting assistant and/or Master Electrician.

•   Contact information (telephone and fax numbers, email addresses).

•   Liability disclaimer (see box).

Visually tied into the title block is the border. The border should be a thick double line. It serves two purposes, one visual and one practical. The visual purpose is that the border acts like a frame and visually ends the drawing. From a practical point of view, the border is very important. Anyone who looks at your drawing and sees a border on three sides will rightly assume they are missing part of the drawing. It alerts the viewers to the true edges of the drawing. That way if something is missing the next thing they do should be to call for another copy of the drawing.

The next item is the Key to Symbols. This is a common element specifically on a light plot, but let’s discuss it now. Think of a street map for a second. There is always a legend on it. It’s a little box with different symbols to help you figure out the difference between a town road and a state highway. Our key is the same thing. On a light plot, the key will show each of the lighting instruments used for the production, and some of the accessories and attributes. Information may include:

•   Graphical symbol as well as verbal description of the fixture.

•   Wattage of the lamp.

•   Color manufacturer designation (i.e., R = Roscolux®, L = Lee, G = GAM, A = Apollo, etc.).

•   Template manufacturer designation, when applicable (R = Rosco, G = GAM, A = Apollo, S = SFX, etc.).

•   Accessories such as templates, irises, color scrollers, top hats, barn doors, etc.

FIG. 5.33
Hudson Scenic sample title block.

USITT has developed symbol guidelines for hand drafting. Vectorworks with Spotlight has its own set of symbols. Many of the manufacturers have developed CAD symbols for their fixtures. Independent programmers have symbols you can get as well. This can be a little confusing. Here is the key—no pun intended! As long the symbols on your light plot match the symbols in your key, everything will work out okay. Is it better to use something standardized? It will help others to understand what you want a little quicker. If they’ve just finished working in a show with the USITT standard symbols, they are already used to them and know what they mean. If you use other symbols, they’ll still figure it out. It may just take a little longer initially.

Notes are an important part of every drafting. Scenic drawings tend to place the notes around the drawing as needed. Light plots tend to use a note box where all the notes are located. Most lighting notes are applicable to the whole light plot, not just one light. Scenery notes are usually very specific to one piece of scenery. That is the difference.

When you began reading this book, you expected there to be a table of contents, individual chapters, and an index at the very least, right? You use these things to find what you want within the book. Well, drafting is the same way! A complete pack of scenic drafting should include:

•   Sketch (scenery only).

•   Ground plan or Light plot.

•   Section.

•   Deck plan.

•   Elevations.

•   Detail drawings.

Let’s go through them briefly one at a time. More detail will follow in the individual chapters and through illustrations. I think it is important to include the sketch as the first plate of drafting in a scenery pack. It gives everyone who will look at the drawings a context from which to compare all the individual pieces. Whenever I get a pack of drafting with the sketch attached, it always makes me relax knowing I have all the information in one place.

FIG. 5.34
A sample key. Remember the key can have as much or as little information as is needed to convey the information.

The ground plan and the light plot are similar drawings. Both are a plan view of the stage. Both show the theatre architecture that can include the proscenium arch, plaster line, smoke pocket, and other architectural details needed. The most important thing on either of these drawings is the center line. Let me say that again. The most important thing on either of these drawings is the center line! Got it? Why, you might ask? Well, we know where the plaster line is and that it is our reference for all upstage/downstage measurements. Our only reference for left/right measurements is the center line. Here is the twist. Sometimes the center of the stage is not the center of the auditorium. Sometimes the set designer moves the center of the set to a different angle. So how do you know which one to use? It’s easy; the set designer will select the one that is the most critical to the set. The lighting designer then needs to use the same center line. Otherwise nothing will line up, things will have to be redone, and the schedule will go out the window. Let me just say one more thing. The most important thing on either of these drawings is the center line!

The scenic ground plan should show all the scenic elements, assembled and in their positions, as this is the primary focus of the drawing. Major scenic elements should be identified through notes. Overhead items, whether static or moving, should be indicated with dotted lines. All curtains, backings, and masking should be shown in position relative to the sightlines.

FIG. 5.35
Hanging in Hudson Scenic’s office is a complete pack of draftings for a show.

FIG. 5.36
Hudson Scenic’s ground plan showing the breakdown of walls.

Also on the ground plan is the line set inventory. This may be one of the most important things to be drawn. The line set inventory is a list of pipes overhead that can be flown in and out. The inventory numbers the pipes beginning at the plaster line and moving upstage as the numbers get higher. The distance upstage from the plaster line to the center of the pipe is shown. The set designer will provide a description for what will be hung from this pipe. Lastly, the designer will estimate how high the pipe will be in its playing and storage positions.

The light plot is similar to the ground plan and contains many of the same things. The light plot will show the scenic elements, although usually in less detail than on the ground plan. The focus of the light plot is to show the lighting equipment for the show, in relation to the scenery and masking. The light plot becomes by its nature a composite drawing. The scenic designer’s ground plan is the base. Lighting is drawn over the top. The line set inventory is altered with the addition of the overhead electrics.

The section drawing, whether for scenery or lighting, is essential. Picture that the theatre has been cut in half along the center line and split wide open. If you stand between the two halves and look in the stage left wing, that is a “center section looking left.” You can make the split anywhere that benefits showing the information you need, and you can look in either direction. The key is to show a cut through the middle of important details so that we can see how other parts of the show will relate.

The deck plan is a drawing of the floor. That sounds simple. But it’s really not in today’s theatre. Decks have often become the most complicated part of the design. The floor of the theatre is often covered completely with platforms, called a show deck. The reason for this is that much more scenery moves now than ever before and the deck can contain pieces of the automation package for doing this movement. There can also be multiple levels to create more interesting acting areas. That means stairs will be needed, both onstage to get the actors up and potentially offstage to get the actors back down. More on that entire idea later, but let’s just say that a floor is not just a floor anymore.

Our next topic is the elevation. An elevation takes the ground plan and stands it up into three dimensions, one element at a time. This allows the scene shop and carpenters to see each individual piece as it is intended to be built. Measurements are critical at this stage, as building is about to begin. The elevation can go into much more detail than the ground plan because there is more room on the drawing for it. The ground plan gets expanded so each piece stands by itself. Studying the elevations is one of the best ways to get to know the set and catch parts that may have been too crowded to see on the ground plan. Elevations are often drawn in the same scale as the ground plan.

Where the elevation leaves off, the detail drawings begin. There are often parts of the set that require a much closer look. Let’s say the scale of the ground plan was ¼ inch or ½inch; the detail drawings could be 3 inches or full scale. Take a look at your scale rule and think about the difference between these scales. This allows for the detail to almost explode into view. It makes the dimensioning not only easier, but also doable. Detail drawings will also include practicals. Practicals are scenic elements or props that plug into some form of electricity. These items must be planned out in great detail to make sure that they work properly and are safe.

By the way, in case you were wondering, I did once ask my professor to take his own drawing test. Remember the cube, chair, rabbit, and human?

FIG. 5.37
Sample line set inventory.

FIG. 5.38
John McKernon’s light plot for a production of The Nutcracker.

FIG. 5.39
Section for a high school auditorium during new construction.

FIG. 5.40
John Lee Beatty’s deck plan for Neil Simon’s The Odd Couple.

FIG. 5.41
John Lee Beatty’s wall details for Neil Simon’s The Odd Couple.

FIG. 5.42
John Lee Beatty’s full-scale details for Neil Simon’s The Odd Couple.

FIG. 5.43
Salvatore Tagliarino takes his own test.