1Learning in Response to Instructional Communication
Abstract: This Handbook focuses on the role of interpersonal communication in the teaching-learning process. In this introductory chapter, the Editor outlines the general structure of the volume, including a brief overview of each of the sections beginning with historical and theoretical foundations and progressing to instructor characteristics and actions, followed by student characteristics and attitudes. The next sections focus on pedagogical issues and the teaching and learning of communication across the lifespan. Each chapter synthesizes major research findings, articulates the theories on which they are based, and advances a research agenda for the future development of the field.
This volume addresses what is known about the strategic role of interpersonal communication in the teaching-learning process. Human learning begins at birth (or perhaps before), continues throughout all the life stages, takes place both within and outside formal educational contexts, and can occur independently of others through intuition or internal cognitive activity. However, the focus of this volume is the learning that occurs in response to instruction – the intentional activity of teaching and learning. When spoken communication is the primary vehicle that carries instruction from teacher to learner, the teacher’s skillful and strategic use of language has measurable impact on learning outcomes. If that instruction occurs within the context of a positive teacher-student relationship, learning may be further enhanced. Thus, the cumulative findings of instructional communication research are instrumental in maximizing success for both teacher and student.
Since the early days of the Greek city states, philosophers have been captivated by the power and effect of strategically designed messages skillfully delivered by credible speakers. Drawing on that rhetorical heritage, 20th-century scholars began to systematically examine teachers’ actions, tactics, and methods of instructional delivery, with the intent to measure differing effects on students’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning, as well as their attitudes about learning in general. Most of this research was conducted by professionals in the field of Education, and most of their samples consisted of students attending formal classes for various age levels and subject matters. However, in the 1970s, due in part to the introduction of the first doctoral program in Instructional Communication at West Virginia University (USA), a new cadre of scholars began to engage in the scientific study of instructional communication, with a particular interest in the use of spoken language as the most frequently employed instrument to deliver instruction. (The evolution of instructional communication as a field of study is detailed in Ch. 2.) Like the Education researchers before them, most of these Communication scholars collected their data from classroom students, primarily college and university students in the United States; but as the field of study evolved, the target population broadened to include younger students, adult learners, and a variety of contexts beyond the traditional classroom. Today, researchers examine instructors’ and students’ communication in the context of traditional classrooms for all age levels, e-learning, tutoring and coaching, work-related training, and continuing education for adults.
The primary purpose of this volume is to synthesize the extensive findings of this body of research, to articulate the theories on which it is based, and to advance a research agenda for the future development of the field. An introductory section lays the conceptual groundwork by addressing the major theoretical and methodological perspectives that have shaped research about teaching and learning in general (Ch. 3) and instructional communication in particular (Ch. 4). These foundational chapters introduce major themes that orient readers to the discipline and equip them with basic terminology and concepts relevant to the chapters that follow. Broad in scope, these chapters integrate divergent philosophical and theoretical traditions and identify current issues and debates among scholars.
Most scholars and practitioners who have a vested interest in communication, instruction, and learning are keenly aware of the complex nature of teacher-student interaction. During the instructional process, the teacher’s life experience, socio-cultural values, and intellectual expertise intersect (or collide) with the student’s life experience, socio-cultural values, cognitive abilities, and intellectual curiosity. The degree of learning and other desirable outcomes that result from the interaction depend to some extent on the successful negotiation of this multi-faceted interpersonal encounter. Thus, the next two sections of this volume address teaching and learning from the viewpoint of the instructor first, then the student.
Instructor Characteristics and Actions
This section focuses on the teacher side of the dyad, where instructors bring to the interaction their own unique blend of characteristics such as their attitudes toward teaching and toward students, individual personality traits, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, expertise in the subject matter, and of course their particular communicating style and skills. Classroom teachers typically present instructional material orally through lectures, explanation and clarification of details, guided discussions, and performance feedback, as well as supplemental one-on-one interaction with some students. Most of these instructional functions can be replicated for off-site students through computer-mediated communication, where online instructors typically adjust their teaching activities to accommodate these distance delivery systems. Believing that education is not limited to the transfer of information alone, many teachers seek to develop some degree of mentoring or professional influence through interpersonal connection with their students, and it is within the context of the teacher-student relationship that some of the most significant learning occurs.
What communication characteristics are shared by successful teachers? What oral communication skills and instructor actions enhance students’ learning? How important is it for teachers to conduct themselves in ways that manifest both competence and character? How can instructors most effectively provide feedback on student performance? These and other pertinent questions are the focus of this section of the volume, where leading scholars provide a survey of eight communication-related characteristics or actions that affect the teaching-learning process. They overview the conceptual and theoretical development of the focal constructs, examine current and past methods and measures, summarize major research findings, and project future research agendas for continuing inquiry. Each chapter concludes with an extensive reference list for further reading. These are the teacher-related constructs that comprise this section:
–Instructional Clarity – fashioning instructional messages in a logical manner using specific, understandable language that maximizes comprehension and learning (Ch. 5).
–Teacher Power and Compliance-Gaining – the ways teachers exert their authority and social influence to ensure order and maintain a positive classroom environment (Ch. 6).
–Instructor Immediacy – reducing psychological distance between teachers and students through verbal and nonverbal cues that result in perceptions of closeness and liking (Ch. 7).
–Instructor Credibility – students’ perceptions of the source credibility of their instructor based on Aristotle’s philosophy of ethos: competence, character, and caring (Ch. 8).
–Instructor Use of Humor – students’ perceptions and interpretations of their teacher’s use of humor during instruction, with an emphasis on appropriateness and relevance (Ch. 9).
–Teacher Self-Disclosure – students’ perceptions of teachers who disclose personal information during instruction (Ch. 10).
–Instructor Verbal Aggression – types and effects of aggressive verbal behavior directed toward an individual student or a class (Ch. 11).
–Instructional Feedback – the ways teachers communicate correction, direction, or advice concerning a student’s academic performance (Ch. 12).
Student Characteristics and Attitudes
The next section shifts the focus from instructors to learners. In order to receive instructional messages that prompt or enhance learning, students must possess certain cognitive skills or aptitudes, exhibit some degree of motivation and learning readiness, and (ideally) embrace positive attitudes about the teacher, the subject matter, and learning in general. Otherwise, even skillfully-designed instructional messages may fall short of desired effects. In addition, the perceived sense of interpersonal connectedness between teacher and student, and among the students themselves, often exerts an influence on learning outcomes. Accordingly, instructional communication scholars have investigated many student-related characteristics and attitudes that prepare and support optimum learning conditions, such as cultural orientation, ethnicity, gender, motivation, and interpersonal connection, to name but a few. Because of the centrality of communication in this body of research, special emphasis has been given to the challenging condition of communication apprehension, the anxiety that – for a segment of learners, at least – accompanies some types of interaction and may complicate or impede the teaching-learning process.
Are certain characteristics commonly found among students who excel as learners? What student attitudes, perceptions, and expectations enhance their learning? How important are learners’ interpersonal connections with the instructor and other students? To what extent does communication apprehension impose deleterious effects on teaching and learning? These and other pertinent questions are the focus of this section of the volume. These authors provide theoretical perspectives and review research findings concerning how learners receive instruction and how they manage or interpret their role in the teaching-learning process. These are the student-related variables that comprise this section:
–Cultural Values and Human Development – the ways learners are shaped by their culture, and implications for communication and learning in intercultural environments (Ch. 13).
–Social Identity in the College Classroom – the ways race, gender, age, and (dis)ability affect receiving instruction and interacting with teachers and other students (Ch. 14).
–Students’ Motivation to Learn – intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation that students bring to the activity of teaching and learning (Ch. 15).
–Communication Apprehension and Public Speaking Instruction – common symptoms, possible causes, and interventions designed to manage anxiety about speaking to groups (Ch. 16).
–Social Perspectives on Student Learning – student-to-student interaction and other sources of social support that enhance positive attitudes toward learning (Ch. 17).
Pedagogy and Classroom Management
The next section addresses the context in which instruction occurs and some conditions that affect the type and timing of instructional messages. It is impossible to discuss teaching and learning in the twenty-first century without considering the powerful influence posed by communication technology, as mediated distribution systems enable the proliferation of instruction to unprecedented numbers and varieties of learners. At the same time, ever-present technologies present both opportunities and challenges in on-site classrooms, where teachers make use of digital projectors and classroom Internet access but also struggle to control students’ use of cell phones and laptops as sources of non-instructional distraction. Some creative classroom instructors make use of innovative instructional design such as service learning and flipped classrooms to establish non-traditional learning environments that capture students’ attention and facilitate hands-on learning. In contrast to classroom courses, some personal instruction takes place in one-on-one tutoring, mentoring, and training sessions, where instructors typically have more freedom to individualize instruction and maximize the teacher-student connection. Social scientists have assessed communication in all these learning environments using the customary tools and methods of scientific inquiry, and critical scholars have added their unique perspectives by speaking with clarity and insight into the nuances of interpersonal communication in various learning contexts.
How effective is mediated instruction as compared with face-to-face delivery? Can the essential content of the Basic Communication Course for college students be delivered successfully online? How can classroom teachers make the best use of technology during instruction, yet limit students’ access to individual devices to maintain focus on instruction? Does communication research support the use of service learning and other innovative course designs? These and other questions are the focus of this section of the volume, where a diverse group of scholars discuss the techniques, processes, and technologies that enable learning in today’s classroom and computer-mediated contexts. These are the pedagogical and programmatic topics presented in this section:
–New Technologies and Distributed Learning Systems – the use of computer-mediated and digital communication to extend teaching and learning beyond the traditional classroom (Ch. 18).
–Tech Policies and Tech Use in the College Classroom – how classroom instructors use technology as teaching aids, and how they manage students’ use of technologies during class (Ch. 19).
–Teaching the Basic Communication Course Online – development of curriculum and use of technologies to provide fundamental communication training to off-site learners (Ch. 20).
–Service Learning and Innovative Pedagogies – development of non-traditional means of delivering instruction and promoting learning, both inside and outside the classroom (Ch. 21).
–Advising, Tutoring, Mentoring, and Coaching – instructional communication in these non-classroom settings that support and enhance the total learning experience (Ch. 22).
– Critical Communication Pedagogy – using a critical lens to assess teacher-student interaction and its socio-cultural effects (Ch. 23).
Teaching and Learning Communication Across the Lifespan
The final section addresses how humans learn to communicate effectively and appropriately during each of the life stages, from early childhood to working adult. In the academic discipline of Communication Studies, the process of teaching communication skills in formal or informal contexts is identified as communication education. Developmental and educational psychologists have devoted much attention to the acquisition of language by very young children, including the role of parents, teachers, and siblings to influence the emergence of language and social skills of the very young. School children and teenage learners continue to develop age-appropriate communicating abilities through social interaction in the classroom, as well as courses devoted to debate or public speaking. To date, the largest body of communication education research has focused on teaching courses to college students, both communication majors and those fulfilling general education requirements for various degrees. In addition, many adult learners continue to develop their communication skills through seminars, training sessions, courses, and individual coaching or tutoring. Perhaps it can be said that no one ever stops learning about how to achieve shared understanding with others, and that an entire lifetime is not sufficient to arrive at the ability to communicate perfectly.
What are the most effective methods of acquiring communication skills, beginning with early childhood and progressing through adult learners? What are the accepted communication competencies and skills for each stage of human development? How effective are speech courses, training seminars, and individual coaching as means toward achieving communication competence? How are communication programs assessed to determine their effectiveness? These are the topics discussed in this section by authors who present theoretical perspectives, describe common practices, and identify future opportunities and challenges related to helping learners develop good communication skills. The chapters in this section follow learners through the progression of the lifespan:
–Teaching Communication to Pre-School Children (Ch. 24)
–Teaching Communication to Children and Adolescents (Ch. 25)
–Teaching Communication to College and University Students (Ch. 26)
–Teaching Communication to Working Adults (Ch. 27)
–Assessment of Communication Programs (Ch. 28)
Conclusion
In the final chapter, the Editor is joined by a panel of forward-thinking scholars from Europe and the United States to discuss the challenges and opportunities related to communication and learning in the twenty-first century. Collectively, they identify questions yet to be answered concerning the acquisition of communication skills, the formation of effective instructional messages, the complex interaction of teachers and students, the understanding of cognitive processes, and the development of successful educational programs and learning experiences. The result of their conversation is an outline of research questions to guide instructional communication scholars for years to come.
When it comes to communication and learning, some of us are teachers and all of us are learners. We still have much to learn about the skillful, strategic use of communication during instruction. Though vast, the collective knowledge of instructors, professors, researchers, scholars, and practitioners is still incomplete, and the search continues for greater understanding of learning in response to instructional communication.