Steven A. Beebe and Seth S. Frei

27Teaching Communication to Working Adults

Abstract: Communication skills are among the most important competencies for working adults and professionals to possess. To describe how those skills are developed, this chapter summarizes relevant adult learning theories anchored in both education and communication literatures. We review differences between education and workplace training, highlighting the distinctive nature of teaching communication skills to working adults. We also describe socialization processes that help new employees acquire workplace communication skills after joining a new organization. Finally, we identify and discuss selected methods and practices for teaching communication to adults in the workplace, emphasizing the professional and personal benefits that accrue from helping working adults reach their maximum communication potential.

Keywords: communication skills, adult learners, adult learning theory, communication training, communication education, socialization, workplace communication, online learning, e-training

Communication skills are valued and needed by learners of all ages (Alexander & Campbell, 2006; Gray & Koncz, 2014; Hansen & Hansen, 2015; Robles, 2012). Adult learners, those between 25 and 105 years of age, are no exception. Given that the application of communication theory and skills is especially valued in the workplace, teaching communication to working adults is important to enhance both the quality of human relationships and achieve organizational objectives (Adams, 2013; American Association of Colleges and Universities [AACU], 2013; Windsor, Curtis, & Stephens, 1997). Multiple research studies spanning several years have documented that communication skills are paramount, both when hiring adult employees and when maintaining a strong and effective workforce (Adams, 2013; Alexander & Campbell, 2006; Gray & Koncz, 2014; Hansen & Hansen, 2015; Robles, 2012; Windsor et al., 1997). Thus, it is important to understand the process and procedures of teaching communication competencies to working adults.

The teaching of communication skills and knowledge (known as “soft skills” in comparison to “hard skills” such as technology and other technical competencies) continues to be an important content area of many training and development programs in corporate contexts (Adams, 2013; Alexander & Campbell, 2006; Beebe, Mottet, & Roach, 2013; Gray & Koncz, 2014; Hansen & Hansen, 2015; Robles, 2012; Windsor et al., 1997). In addition to workplace training programs, working adult students occupy an important constituency in colleges and universities. In higher education, students older than the average 18- to 24-year-old college students are called non-traditional students. In 2007 almost 40 percent of the eighteen million college students in the United States were 25 years old or older (Ross-Gordon, 2011). There is similar growth in Europe, with the number of nontraditional students increasing by more than 55% between 2000 and 2010 (Sánchez & Kaplan, 2014). Both non-traditional students and adults enrolled in workplace training programs are interested in learning communication principles and skills to enhance their employment prospects. Because adults are already in the workforce (but not necessarily employed in the job they will have for the rest of their lives), they typically have an enhanced appreciation for the value of communication knowledge and skill. Whether taking college courses for credit, participating in workplace training and development programs, or continuing to develop communication competencies in non-credit personal development programs, most adults are keenly interested in developing their communication skills and knowledge.

What are the top skills and competencies desired by employers? In a study published in Forbes, communication skills, relationship skills, and decision-making skills were the top three competencies important for working individuals and professionals (Caprino, 2012). These skill sets mirror the top skills that personnel directors seek, namely oral, written, and listening communication skills (Adams, 2013; Windsor et al., 1997), as well as those identified by college career services as the most desirable attributes of graduates (University of Wisconsin-River Falls, 2007). Listening, oral, and written communication skills also topped the list of desired competences by employers in another high-profile study (Hansen & Hansen, 2015). Yet another study published by Forbes identified the top skills and competencies desired by employers for 2015 college graduates: the ability to work in a team, make decisions, solve problems, plan, organize and prioritize work, and communicate verbally with people inside and outside an organization (Adams, 2013). Clearly, communication skills rank consistently among the topic skills desired by and taught to working adults.

In this chapter we review the scope and importance of teaching communication skills and principles to adults in workplace contexts. Besides the obvious distinctive that those being taught are “working adults,” there are additional unique learning approaches, needs, and methods that are characteristic of adult learners. We begin by providing an overview of adult learning theory and then describe the contexts in which working adults typically learn communication skills, specifically in workplace training programs. Because adult learning theory suggests that adults learn in ways that are different from younger learners, we present an overview of adult learning methods followed by a review of the typical content that provides the curricula for adult learning programs. We also summarize research literature that focuses on the theoretical backgrounds of teaching communication to working adults, including adult learning styles and the role of socialization in adult learning. We discuss how adults learn communication through workplace socialization, as well as when participating in training programs explicitly developed to enhance communication competence. Finally, we conclude by offering best practices for teaching communication to working adults.

Theoretical Considerations

As in the other social sciences, communication researchers typically ground their research in established theories of communication. When it comes to research on teaching communication skills to adults, however, a recurring criticism is the lack of theory grounding the research (e.g., Campbell, 1971; Tharenou, Saks, & Moore, 2007). Because training emphasizes application and is practitioner-based, some scholars choose to pursue atheoretical research. Through interviews with training and development scholars, Smith and Clayton (2012) found a wide range of reasons why scholars do, or do not, use theory in their applied research. They concluded that a primary asset to this research is the availability of diverse theoretical backgrounds that span multiple academic disciplines – such as education, psychology, and communication (Frei, 2013) – as opposed to drawing from a single theoretical base.

Applying education theories to practice can increase effectiveness and individual acquisition of workplace skills including communication skills (Arshad, Khawaja, & Saad Abdullah Husein, 2012). For example, applications to training have been made through education theories such as Knowles, Holton, and Swanson’s (2015) adult learning theory and Bandura’s (1971) social learning theory. Additionally, goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 2002), which posits that more difficult goals lead to higher levels of task performance, has been used in the study of how to best transfer what is learned in training sessions to on-the-job tasks (Brown & Warren, 2009; Johnson, Garrison, Hernez-Broome, Fleenor, & Steed, 2012), training outcomes (Kozlowski et al., 2001), and motivation for learning skills (Brown, Hillier, & Warren, 2010). Further, social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) has been applied to identify ways behavior can be changed in various training environments (Holt, Killough, & Koh, 2001). In essence, social cognitive theory suggests that students learn through the observation of both behaviors and the likelihood of a reward resulting from the performance of the behavior. In training sessions learners can benefit from observing how a communication skill is performed and how the skill attainment may benefit the learner. Both of these theories, and others within social psychology, have created theoretical frameworks for training research.

Theory originating from communication scholars might have a natural place in training research, but it has been underutilized to this point. Interpersonal theories, such as coordinated management of meaning (Pearce & Cronen, 1980), social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973), or uncertainty reduction theory (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), could be extended to study the communication skills developed through training. Additionally, rhetorical/ relational goals theory (Mottet, Frymier, & Beebe, 2006) can be applied to the needs of trainees when they enter a training session (Stephens & Mottet, 2008). Attempts to apply communication theory to training research must not be overlooked or under-valued. There are ample opportunities to incorporate theory and research about teaching communication skills to adults such as the work done in health communication incorporating theory and communication skills in healthcare settings (e.g., Meehan & Menniti, 2014; Watson, Cleland, Inch, Bond, & Francis, 2007).

Adult Learning Theory

Perhaps the most instructive of these theories is Knowles’ adult learning theory (Knowles, 1990; Knowles et al., 2015; Merriam, 2008), which identifies ways in which adults learn differently from children. This key theoretical claim underscores why this volume contains a separate chapter that focuses on teaching communication to working adults. Adult learning theory both describes and prescribes how to maximize adult learning based on the assumption that adults have unique needs and approaches to learning.

A well-developed body of literature reviews adult learning theory and describes the differences and similarities between the way adults and children learn (Knowles et al., 2015). Malcolm Knowles (1990) is credited for being among the first to promote adult learning theory, noting that adults and children have different learning needs, instructional preferences, backgrounds, and assumptions. To distinguish between the approaches and preferences of adult learners, Knowles clarified those differences by distinguishing between andragogy and pedagogy. The first use of the term andragogy has been traced to Alexander Kapp in 1833, initially used to describe Plato’s approach to education (Smith, 2010). Although some researchers (Holmes & Abington-Cooper, 2000) have suggested that the differences between andragogical and pedagogical learning approaches may be a false dichotomy, there is general agreement that adults do differ, in comparison to younger learners, in terms of learning preferences, assumptions, and styles.

Andragogy is the art and science of teaching adults (Knowles et al., 2015; Wlodkowski, 1999). The word ander is a Greek term that means “adults.” Thus, an andragogical approach to learning emphasizes styles and approaches that maximize learning for adults. An andragogical learning approach has the key distinction of learning being self-directed rather than teacher-directed. Thus, an important andragogical assumption is that adults learn what they need to learn, when they need to learn it. Pedagogy, an often-used term to describe general curriculum development, is technically the art and science of teaching children. Pedagogy is more teacher-directed based on its word origin; paid is the Greek word for “child,” and the word agogus is Greek for “guide.” Thus, pedagogy is the process of guiding children’s learning, in contrast to andragogy, which describes how adults learn.

The research of Knowles (1990) and a host of other adult learning scholars (e.g., Knowles et al., 2015; Merriam, 2008; Roberts, Gustavs, & Mack, 2012; Wlodkowski, 1999) has identified at least five ways that adults approach the mastery of communication skills and knowledge, given their added maturity and reservoir of life experiences: (1) Adults prefer to understand why the learning content is relevant to them; (2) Adult learners bring their experience to what they learn; (3) Adults are usually more self-motivated than younger learners; (4) Adult learners typically know what they need to learn; and (5) Adult learners learn best by seeking solutions to problems (Beebe et al., 2013; Knowles et al., 2015).

Adult learners prefer to understand why they are learning what they learn

For maximum learning effectiveness, adult learners like to know that what they learn is relevant to their lives and work; they are not responsive to a “learn-this-because-I-said-so” approach. Adults have busy lives, and what they learn should be connected to their life needs. Children, on the other hand, are more likely to learn, or at least more likely to tolerate being told to learn something, because the information or skill is presented to them. Younger learners memorize their multiplication tables or memorize terms and definitions because the teacher directs them to do so. More mature learners want a clear understanding as to why what they are learning is important. Adults often see the value and relevance of learning communication skills and principles because they have observed situations in which poor communication had a negative effect on a relationship or the performance of a task (Beebe et al., 2013; Knowles et al., 2015).

Adult learners bring their lifetime of experience to what they learn

Adult learners have more life experiences and like to connect what they learn to what they have done in the past, are doing now, and may do in the future. Adults also want what they learn to be directly relevant to their work. Younger learners, by contrast, have fewer life experiences. They typically are not employed in full-time jobs and have less opportunity for immediate workplace application. Adults, however, have learned to be more efficient in the use of their time – they want to know that how they spend their time is relevant to their work or even their leisure. They bring their past experiences to bear on what they are learning. A lifetime of experiencing ineffective communication, conflict, and challenges in relationships, as well as positive experiences with communication, gives adult learners a wealth of experience they can use to evaluate and interpret what they learn about communication principles and skills.

Adults are usually self-motivated

We noted earlier that a distinguishing characteristic of andragogy is that adults are more self-directed than children. Underlying this characteristic is the assumption that adults are more intrinsically motivated to accomplish a goal; i.e., they are more likely than children to want to learn to something for their personal reward and satisfaction, rather than depending on people or circumstances to provide extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is that which comes from outside the individual in the form of rewards (such as by money or recognition). Adults certainly like rewards, accolades and recognition, but they are more likely than children to appreciate and value the experiences more for the intrinsic feeling of accomplishment than for whatever rewards are offered.

Younger learners are more likely to be motivated to get the grade or achieve the reward (Knowles et al., 2015). Adults are less motivated by what others think, although the views of others are not completely discounted. Further, adults know that ultimately what they learn cannot be taken from them because it is a part of them, so they are motivated to acquire information and skills that will be useful to them in the future. Because of their broad range of experiences, adults are more likely than children to be motivated to learn communication principles and skills because they have observed both the positive benefits of having effective communication skills and the negative effects of inept, ineffective, or inappropriate communication.

Adult learners understand what they need to learn

Adults are more adept than younger learners at learning from their failures and struggles. Adults, especially of employment age, are able to reflect on how errors in the past have had an impact on the present and likely to have an impact on their future. Children, by comparison, are less contemplative and therefore less likely to learn from their mistakes; they are generally more likely to learn what is placed in front of them without necessarily connecting how what they are learning now is linked to previous situations, either positive or negative.

When adults encounter a problem or issue that needs to be resolved, they are more likely to recognize the need on their own. They do, of course, need feedback from others to point to areas in need of improvement, but many adult learners are already aware of their challenges and needs because they have encountered problems associated with their lack of knowledge or skill. Adults are motivated to seek instruction at major life turning points such as starting a new career, being promoted, or losing a job. These significant events provide an impetus for change and often prompt adults to see the need for new skills or knowledge. Children are less aware of their own deficiencies and needs and, therefore, more teacher-dependent on having their educational and training needs met.

Adults learn best by focusing on problems

According to adult learning theory (Knowles et al., 2015), adults are problem-based learners. More mature learners learn best when they are facing a problem or issue and see that acquiring more knowledge or skill will help solve the problem. When adults are confronted with obstacles that keep them from obtaining their desired goal, they are focused on learning strategies to surmount the obstacles and achieve the desired outcome. Adults are better suited to learn communication skills and principles that they can connect to address their own issues, deficiencies, or needs. Case studies, field learning, and realistic role-playing situations that mirror the kinds of problems that adult learners face are likely to enhance the learning experience for adult learners.

Children, by contrast, focus on learning by subject matter; they take prescribed courses recommended to develop a predetermined body of knowledge and skill. Although adults are often required to take classes for professional development and continued certification, the classes and instruction are directly linked to the problems and issues they face in their professional work.

Adult Learning Approaches: Comparing Training and Education

Training

Training is the process of developing skills in order to perform a specific job or task more effectively (Beebe et al., 2013). Training literature is largely rooted in applied educational psychology, with studies extending back to the beginning of the 20th century focusing on safety training in the mining and railroad industries (Ford, 1997). Since that time, the study of training has emerged as an important area of scholarship across a spectrum of academic disciplines. In fact, the past 40 years have seen major improvements in scholarly attention to training following Campbell’s (1971) conclusion that “training and development literature is voluminous, nonempiricial, nontheoretical, poorly written, and dull … it is faddish to an extreme” (p. 565). Since this assertion, empirical research has demonstrated the legitimacy of this field through studies in various contexts, including crisis intervention (Teller, Munetz, Gil, & Ritter, 2006), personal defense (Hollander, 2014), health care (Gysels, Richardson, & Higginson, 2005), and government sectors (Krapels & Davis, 2000), among many others. Thirty years after Campbell’s (1971) assessment of training literature, Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) reviewed training literature to conclude that training theory and research had advanced significantly and that “training research is no longer atheoretical, irrelevant, or dull. Exciting advances in all areas of the training enterprise have been realized” (p. 492).

At its essence, training is focused on developing skills – actions and behaviors that result in improvement and an overall positive impression. Therefore, from the standpoint of teaching communication skills, training focuses on the improved performance of specific communication behaviors with the goal of increasing communication effectiveness and appropriateness. Starting with the roots of the discipline, communication scholars focused on enhancing skills in public speaking, which has led to prescriptions of communication competence (Spitzberg, 1983, 2000), and teaching communication skills in the classroom (Morreale, Hugenberg, & Worley, 2006). Research published in top communication journals helped us understand concepts like the role of evaluation in communication training (Johnson & Kusmierek, 1987), training for doctor-patient communication (Brown, Bylund, et al., 2010; McGee & Cegala, 1998), and the role of mediated communication in training (Stephens & Mottet, 2008).

Training is a significant worldwide enterprise with over 160 billion dollars spent annually teaching people speaking skills each year (Miller, 2013). Given the overall importance of communication skills, it is not surprising that adult learners often learn communication skills in training settings. Training is not devoid of presenting information, which is primarily associated with the cognitive domain of learning. Research suggests that training is a major enterprise in the United States (Miller, 2012), with more than one million people in the U.S. making their living in some way related to training (Scannell & Donaldson, 2000).

Education

Education, in contrast to training, is the process of imparting knowledge or information that emphasizes the cognitive domain, whereas training focuses more on skills and behaviors that emphasize the behavioral domain of learning (Beebe et al., 2013). The cognitive domain of learning emphasizes learning concepts, ideas, principles, theories and information. As described by Benjamin Bloom (1956) the cognitive domain includes six hierarchical arranged elements: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

The behavioral domain of learning (also called the psychomotor domain) emphasizes performing specific tasks that involve moment and repetition. Behavioral (or psychomotor) skills are assessed in terms of the precision, accuracy, speed, application of technique and overall precision in performing a specific task.

Comparing Training and Education

Expert trainer, educator, and consultant John Kline (1983) clarified how the two processes of training and education can be distinguished from one another. These classic differences between training and education provide a context for designing and implementing communication training programs for adult learners (Beebe et al., 2013; Knowles et al., 2015).

Adults and Learning Styles

Whether engaged in training or education, not all adults prefer the same learning style or approach. When teaching adults specific communication skills and principles, it is wise to consider the specific needs of individual learners. A learning style is the way an individual perceives, organizes, processes, and remembers information (Beebe et al., 2013). Learning style preferences are especially relevant when teaching and learning communication skills because developing good communication involves all three learning domains (cognitive, affective, and behavioral). Researchers and theorists have concluded that age influences how learners prefer to receive information (Knowles et al., 2015). It is not that one’s physiological age makes a person more or less adept at learning (except for the very young and very old), but that generational culture typically exerts an influence on learning preferences (Knowles et al., 2015).

Through an extended program of research, Howe and Strauss (1991, 2000, 2007) examined how the generation into which Americans are born influences their culture, including how they best learn. A generation is a “society-wide peer group, born over a period roughly the same length as the passage from youth to adulthood, who collectively possess a common persona” (Howe & Strauss, 2000). These researchers concluded that Baby Boomers, those born between 1943–1960, value personal fulfillment and optimizing, champion specific causes, work efficiently, support equal rights, and exhibit a likelihood to buy now and pay later. Persons in Generation X, which includes those born between 1961 and 1981, are more likely to save, yet somewhat paradoxically live for today. They often live with uncertainty and consider balance in their life important. Millennials, sometimes called Generation Y, are those born between 1982 and 2002; they are typically close to their parents, goal-oriented, team-oriented, and focused on achievement. Post Millennials are those born after 2002; new evidence suggests that post millennials are very skilled and comfortable with technology, seek and use a large volume of information, have shorter attention spans, are proficient in multi-tasking, and may have diminished verbal skills.

Knowledge of these generational preferences is essential for those who teach and train adults. Knowing, for example, that a Generation X learner has a tendency to be more individualistic may suggest preferred learning strategies for a Generation X learner. Because Baby Boomers were found to have a sense of loyalty to their employers, employers may expect longer-term service from Baby Boomers. Generation X learners, in comparison seek a strong balance between work life and home life. Given that inclination, it may be useful to stress the benefit of teaching Generation X learners communication skills because they have value both on the job and at home or in other non-work relationships. Generation X learners also value information and skills that have immediate application, so when teaching Generation X adult learners, consider emphasizing how the communication skills have direct application to their work and home life. The greater the generational difference between trainee and trainer, then the more attention that should be paid to bridging differences between trainer teaching approach and trainee learning preferences.

Generational differences are not, of course, the only factor that influences learning preferences. For example, four prominent adult learning styles – divergent learners, assimilators, convergers, and accommodators – are based on learners’ experiences, backgrounds, work history, and personality (Joy & Kolb, 2007; Kolb, 1999).

Socialization and Workplace Communication Skills

In addition to developing workplace communication skills and knowledge through training and education, adult learners also acquire workplace communication competencies throughout the socialization process. Socialization is the process individuals go through as they spend time on the job learning about an organization and acquiring the skills necessary to be a competent worker. Many of the skills employees learn during the socialization process are the communication skills necessary for success in the organization (Jablin, 2001; Kramer, 2010). It is useful to define socialization in comparison to other similar, yet conflicting terms found in the literature. One common term used by scholars studying entry to the workplace is assimilation (Jablin, 2001; Kramer, 2010; Kramer & Miller, 2014). Some scholars may prefer this term because it accounts for the entire process of influencing the newcomer through socialization, and the individual, in turn, seeks to influence the organization through individualization (Kramer, 2010). However, socialization is the term generally used across disciplines (e.g., Ashforth, Sluss, & Harrison, 2007; Berkelaar, 2013; Korte, 2009) to describe the process of organizational entry. We use the term socialization to describe the communication and mutual influence of organizations and individuals during the organizational entry process.

The late Fredric Jablin is regarded as one of the most well-developed researchers in the field of organizational communication for his work on socialization (Krone, 2006). According to Jablin (2001), the socialization process includes periods of vocational anticipatory socialization and organizational anticipatory socialization prior to the organizational encounter. It is through these periods (vocational and organizational anticipatory socialization), prior to entering the workplace for the first time, that individuals develop a set of expectations for how they will communicate in the work setting (Jablin, 2001).

Vocational anticipatory socialization

During vocational anticipatory socialization, individuals develop skills in communication that will be used to communicate with other employees in their future careers (Kramer, 2010). For example, an individual pursuing a career in counseling will learn interpersonal and small group communication skills through formal education curricula and internship opportunities. A manager is likely to learn leadership, conflict management, or meeting management skills.

During the vocational anticipatory socialization phase, individuals grow from childhood to young adulthood, when they gather information about occupations and determine the direction of their career (Jablin, 2001; Van Maanen, 1975). Messages communicated through family, educational institutions, part-time employment, peers and friends, and the media contribute to vocational anticipatory socialization (Jablin, 2001). Through the messages these sources communicate, individuals learn about potential career opportunities, as well as some of the specific communication skills they will need to be successful in future career endeavors. Research on vocational anticipatory socialization has increased recently with scholars looking at topics like academic interests related to science, technology, engineering, and math (Myers, Jahn, Gailliard, & Stoltzfus, 2011), and how adolescents conceptualize work (Levine & Hoffner, 2006). Often, this phase of socialization occurs as adolescents and communication skills are learned from parents, mentors, and teachers. (Information on how children and adolescents learn communication skills at these ages is discussed in preceding chapters.)

Organizational anticipatory socialization

After narrowing in on a career path and completing the required education, individuals enter the process of seeking information through organizational anticipatory socialization. In this phase, individuals use available sources of information to learn specifics about the organization. This stage happens much faster than the vocational process because decisions regarding which organization to join usually happen over a few days or weeks (Kramer, 2010). Information might be learned through recruitment procedures for the position (Breaugh & Starke, 2000), the interview process (Jablin & Krone, 1994), or through online sources (Berkelaar, 2013). Though there are fewer communication skills learned formally during this phase, individuals often learn self-presentation and persuasion skills through recruitment and interviews. During this time, both the potential employee and employer create expectations of one another to help in determining the potential for a correct job fit.

Organizational encounter

Once employees are hired in an organization, they go through the socialization period of organizational encounter or entry as they join the organization (Kramer, 2010). During this time, individuals learn more precise communication skills that will be required to perform their daily tasks. This often occurs during employee training and orientation practices that train employees on specific workplace skills. In this stage there are specific communication skills that adults learn in order to be successful in their new career. Specifically, skills include how to appropriately express emotions (Morris & Feldman, 1996), correctly label workplace actions and objects (Jablin, 2001), and use media when communicating with coworkers (Donabedian, McKinnon, & Bruns, 1998). Based on their broad general use across organizations, Van Maanen and Schein (1979) proposed six dichotomous tactics that organizations use to influence newcomers: collective/individual, formal/informal, sequential/random, fixed/variable, serial/disjunctive, investiture/divestiture. Each of these tactics is not mutually exclusive, instead relying upon each other and being used in conjunction with each other through orientation and training programs to teach communication skills to new employees.

Intersections of Training and Socialization: Implications for the Development of Workplace Communication Skills

In the organizational environment, training programs are one of the primary ways of socializing new employees, thus the intersection of these two bodies of literature forms naturally. In fact, according to Saks (1996), “Adjustment of newcomers is strongly related to the amount of training they feel they have received during socialization” (p. 446). If overall adjustment (measured by job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intentions to quit, and ability to cope) is increased through training of communication skills for the workplace, it appears that training has an impact on socialization. As socialization looks different at each of the stages (i.e., vocational anticipatory socialization, organizational anticipatory socialization, or organizational encounter), it is important to consider the role of training for workplace communication skills throughout the process.

On-the-job training is not often associated with periods of vocational anticipatory socialization, but there are activities during this phase that help individuals learn the skills they might need for a particular career. One source for skills training is from part-time employment during adolescent years. Although some jobs are low-level service jobs, individuals who find a high-quality employer can gain access to great opportunities and communication skill development (Levine & Hoffner, 2006). In the part-time work environment, adolescents often develop social competencies and abilities to solve problems (Zimmer-Gembeck & Mortimer, 2006), which are communication skills that are important to individuals as they eventually enter the workforce. Further, through courses in high school and higher education, young adults begin to develop the necessary skills to become a competent worker in their future careers (Morreale et al., 2006).

After individuals prepare themselves for the skills appropriate for their chosen vocational field, they begin to develop communication skills that are needed in the specific organization they will be joining through organizational socialization. As individuals go through this period where they are recruited, interviewed, and are researching information about the organization, there is typically very little skillsbased communication training available to them. In fact, Kramer (2010) mentions the pre-entry period is rarely studied because of the limited interactions between the organization and the newcomer when compared to the selection process and entry. Training literature, however, suggests an importance in the activities that occur before the employee begins formal training during orientation (Saks & Belcourt, 2006). Saks & Belcourt (2006) suggest if individuals’ future supervisors work with them to create goals and encourage participation in the initial training, it might improve their transfer of skills learned from training to the workplace. Additionally, any pre-training preparation can increase trainee self-efficacy for the program they are to attend (Tannenbaum & Yuki, 1992). Unfortunately, many organizations do not communicate many training-related messages with future employees during the period of organizational anticipatory socialization.

The period during socialization when training is most often used and researched is during the stage of organizational encounter. In fact, training programs are one of the primary ways of socializing new employees (Jablin, 2001). Though research has demonstrated the importance of the organization in training newcomers (Ashforth et al., 2007; Saks, 1995), recent findings suggest the importance of newcomer behavior in socialization success (Ashforth, Sluss, & Saks, 2007). When newcomers are trained on workplace communication skills, satisfaction increases among those with whom they regularly communicate (Merckaert et al., 2015). Thus, training remains an important focus for research on the behaviors and attitudes of individuals as they engage in learning communication skills in the workplace.

Methods of Adult Learning: An Instructional Model

Given the assumptions of adult learning theory, at the heart of the training and socialization processes is focusing on the needs of the learner. The Needs-Centered Training Model (Beebe et al., 2013; see Figure 1) depicts the various steps and processes of designing and presenting training. Each element of the model describes the methods of designing and implementing an adult learning instructional program. At the center of the model is a focus on the needs of both the organization and the individuals who are being trained.

Online Learning by Employees

Increasingly, more workplace training is presented online rather than face-to-face (ASTD, 2013; Miller, 2012). For example, in 2013, 38% of training was delivered using technology (Association for Talent Development, 2014), and 72% of compliance training was delivered online in 2012 (ASTD, 2013). Online learning should continue to focus on the individual needs of learners, yet often involves different strategies to engage learners compared with face-to-face learning. An increased number of instant and individualized assessment measures, along with briefer chunks of instructional content, are hallmarks of online learning methods (Rosenberg, 2000). Compared with face-to-face instruction, online learning results in the advantages of creating consistency across employees, reducing travel costs, and increasing accessibility (Derouin, Fritzsche, & Salas, 2005). Communication skill training can take many forms, including online lectures with live video feeds, multimedia and informational images, as well as interactive discussion boards. Although each of these methods might be enhanced by following basic principles for effective e-learning (Derouin et al., 2005), the specific online delivery method selected ultimately depends on the needs of the employees and how they learn best.

When comparing e-training to traditional in-classroom learning, results have been mixed concerning effectiveness. Effectiveness of the online learning seems to be dependent on organizational culture, individual motivation, individual learning preferences, and the instructional setting (Mital, 2010; Tripathi, 2012). Further, employee attitudes toward technology have a significant effect on an employee’s intention to consider using e-training in the workplace (Yoo & Han, 2013). Thus, if employees do not like using technology in the workplace, they will likely not even try an e-training program if it is optional. When teaching communication skills, whether online or in face-to-face settings, it is important that individuals have the opportunity to practice the given skill (Beebe et al., 2013). E-training introduces a significant barrier in that it is often difficult for learners to practice interpersonal and group skills in an online environment and receive helpful, customized feedback about their skill attainment (Doo, 2006). In a study of trainees, Doo (2006) found less than half of trainees practiced communication skills when instructed to do so in an e-training environment. Attitudes, motivation, and opportunities to practice communication skills when training is presented online will continue to present trainers new challenges as they adapt to the changing landscape of technology.

Best Practices of Teaching Communication to Working Adults

The National Communication Association (NCA) is a professional organization dedicated to promoting scholarship, teaching, and practice of communication as a discipline in the United States. The Training and Development Division of the NCA created a comprehensive list of best practices for individuals teaching communication to working adults (NCA, 2015). The list of best practices is extensive, consisting of a “multi-year effort involving thousands of possible topics and input from literature, government, practitioners, and scholars” (NCA, 2015, p. 1). The following twelve best practices were included in the NCA listing as recommendations to improve competency, accountability, and transparency in teaching communication competences to adults:

Maintain Transparency to Clients and Trainees

Use Assessable Methods

Demonstrate Technology Proficiency

6.Trainers and consultants must maintain proficiency in communication technologies used for delivering and executing deliverables.

Demonstrate Continued Professional Development

7.Trainers and consultants subject and performance competencies must be acquired and maintained through recognized routine professional development activities. These must be readily available to clients and trainees.

Develop and Maintain Organizational Expertise

Demonstrate Effective and Appropriate Instructional Design Competence

Demonstrate Communication Proficiency

12.Trainers and consultants should be skilled in: a) presentation techniques for a range of speaking contexts and experiences; b) speaker credibility design and assessment; c) interpersonal communication techniques and theories; d) organizational culture; and e) group communication techniques and strategies (consisting of group decision making, problem solving, and groups’ advantages and disadvantages).

Conclusion

Communication is ubiquitous. It is estimated that most people spend between 80 and 90 percent of their waking hours communicating with others (Klemmer & Snyder, 1972). Thus, it is not surprising that the use of effective communication skills in the workplace is among the most coveted competencies on the planet. Several surveys of U.S. personnel directors and career counselors have consistently reported that having effective oral communication (speaking) skills is the single most important factor that influences obtaining employment (Hansen & Hansen, 2015; Lukenbaugh & Gray, 2010 Windsor et al., 1997). A 2013 survey of employers by the American Association of Colleges and Universities (AACU) revealed that communication skills, including information literacy, teamwork and oral communication, were highly valued by employers. Warren Buffet, one of the richest persons on earth, once announced to MBA students at his alma mater, Columbia University, that he would offer $ 100,000 to any student in return for 10 percent of his or her future earnings. To make a point about the importance of studying communication, he then announced that if a student would take a communication class, he would increase his offer to $ 150,000. Buffet said taking a communication course was one of the best investments he ever made (Crippen, 2009).

In this chapter we identified the theoretical and practical applications of teaching communication competencies and concepts to working adults. Theoretical models from the fields of Education, Social Psychology, and Communication Studies contribute to the growing body of literature focusing on teaching communication skills to adults. Contemporary research suggests that adults have different learning approaches and styles than do younger learners. Malcolm Knowles and his colleagues (2015) have articulated principles of adult learning that describe how working adults prefer to learn communication skills. Specifically, adult learners (1) prefer to understand why they are learning what they learn, (2) bring their lifetime of experience to what they learn, (3) are usually self-motivated, (4) are more self-reflexive learners, and (5) learn best by focusing on problems. In addition to a general preference for learning, adult learners vary in their learning styles based on their age (Howe & Strauss, 2000) as well as general differences in their preference (e.g., divergent, assimilation, convergent and accommodation) for learning concepts and skills (Kolb, 1999).

Communication skills and competencies, in contrast to communication theory and concepts, are emphasized when teaching adult learners about communication. Consequently, training instructional models (that emphasize the behavioral learning domain), rather than educational models (that emphasize the cognitive learning domain), provide a framework for developing and implementing adult learning approaches. Teaching communication skills to adult learners should emphasize (1) doing rather than knowing, (2) achieving a certain level of communication skill mastery, (3) a “closed” system of providing a comprehensive set of skills to be mastered, (4) performing specific tasks, and (5) focusing on a comprehensive set of skills required to perform a specific task. Often, adults learn the skills they need for the workplace during their socialization with the organization (Jablin, 2001; Kramer, 2010). Socialization includes phases of vocational anticipatory socialization, organizational anticipatory socialization, and organizational encounter (Kramer, 2010). In each of these stages individuals learn various communication skills that are important in the workplace. Organizational training and orientation is one of the prominent methods used by organizations to teach the communication skills to be used in a specific career.

Based on the Needs-Centered Training Model (Beebe et al., 2013), providing communication training to working adults is anchored in identifying competencies that are based on the organizational and individual trainee needs. Additional steps in the training model include analyzing the training task, developing training objectives, organizing training content, determining training methods, selecting training resources, developing training plans, delivering the training and assessing the training. These procedures are used in both face-to-face and online training methods.

Teaching communication skills to adults requires a set of competencies that differs from pedagogical models. Using the best practices proposed by the Training and Development Division of the National Communication Association (NCA, 2015), individuals can gather a better idea of how to best teach communication skills to adults. These best practices emphasize the importance of ethics through maintaining transparency with trainees, using methods that can be assessed for success and transfer to the workplace, operating technology proficiently, maintaining an expertise in organizational operations, and designing appropriate lessons while becoming proficient in the skills they are teaching.

Training working adults in communication skills is often attempted, yet many times is inadequately executed. This might be because the instructor does not fully apply the assumptions of adult learning theory (Knowles et al., 2015), nor follow the appropriate methods of training adults (Beebe et al., 2013), or they simply are not implementing the best practices of teaching communication to adults (NCA, 2015). In this chapter, we reviewed the importance of teaching communication skills to adults and presented theory, methods, and applications to effectively teach adult learners. Through advances in the way communication skills and concepts are taught to working adults, using both theory and applying appropriate strategies presented in this chapter, professional and personal communication can be enhanced.

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