9.2.1 Definition of culture shock

Due to the change of the social and non-social environment, the expatriate is confronted with patterns of perception, thinking, feeling and acting that are different from his/her previous “world of implicitness” (Kühlmann, 1995, p.4). The relativity and culture dependency of of our experience and behavioral patterns becomes obvious (ibid.).

This experience of inappropriateness of one’s own behavior in a different culture and the consequent loss of orientation, unstableness and insecurity is often described in literature as the concept of a “culture shock” (Eulenburg, 2001, p. 62).

Oberg introduced the term “culture shock” for the first time to describe the adaption process to an alien environment; from entering the host culture to the successful integration (Wengert, p. 2). To Oberg, the culture shock is similar to a sickness with a certain cause, symptoms and treatment (1960, p. 7).

Nowadays, the term has a negative connotation, which usually implies that the person experiencing it is not willing to adapt and that certain experiences in the other culture have resulted in a shock (Löwe, 2002, p. 10). Layes (2003, p. 130) agrees that the term “culture shock” is deceptive, because people understand it like a severe shock phenomena, although culture shock also embraces soft irritations and confusion when experiencing the otherness of the new culture, which can lead to alienation and rejection of the host culture.

Wagner concludes that a culture shock is the sum of all intercultural confusions, all the times putting one foot in it (1996, pp. 33–34). He thinks that the cause of culture shock is connected to the norms creating meaning in one’s own culture (ibid.).

Kopper and Kiechl (1997, p. 33) clearly state that culture shock is not a illness but a process of adaption after the relocation to another culture, and is associated with the gathering and processing of different behavioral norms and patterns, customs, rites, as well as their own psychological reaction to the unknown. Adler (2002, p. 264) agrees, stating that

9.2.2 Culture shock models

The cross-cultural research literature features several terms to describe the development of skills that allow foreigners to function adequately in a new culture. Adjustment, adaptation, and acculturation are the ones most often used and they describe the process and resulting change when people move into an unfamiliar cultural environment. (Haslberger & Brewster, 2005)

The best known culture shock model introduced by Oberg (1960) describes the four different stages of adjustment: Honeymoon, Crisis, Recovery, and Adjustment. Moreover, the “U-curve” hypothesis introduced by Lysgaard (1955) has been a researchers’ favorite for describing the adjustment process over the last half a century.

The Honeymoon Phase or Euphoria is characterized by fascination and enthusiasm for the new culture having friendly – but superficial – relationships to host country members (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 6). Expatriates enjoy a great deal of excitement when they discover the new culture (Adler, 2002, p. 263).

In the second phase, the actual culture shock sets in. The problems in terms of language, values and symbols create negative emotions, anxiety and frustration (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 6). It is a period of disillusionment and

After that, when time goes on, the Recovery or Adjustment Phase begins, when the knowledge about the host country is improving, the foreigner can orientate him/herself within the new culture and the attitude towards the host culture improves (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 6). Thus, after the culture shock phase, expatriates start adapting to the new culture, feeling more positive about their host country, working more effectively and living a more satisfying life (Adler, 2002, p. 263). Finally, the Mastery phase begins; reaching a stable state of well-being, where the habits of the other culture are accepted and and anxiety rarely appears.

When people are experiencing the culture shock, there are several possible symptoms manifesting themselves in physical conditions, perceptions and behavior. Health impairments can be insomnia, a loss of appetite, digestion problems and high blood pressure (ibid., p. 7; Adler, 2002, p. 265). Moreover, an affected person might also undergo psychological effects like mistrust towards the members of the host culture, the feeling of being constantly deceived and helplessness when confronted with everyday problems. The host culture is blamed for one’s own destiny (ibid.). Ultimately, a change of behavior could become apparent, such as a decrease in performance and creativity, a focus on contacts with country fellowmen, the avoidance of members of the other culture, a resistance to speaking the foreign language, and deprecatory statements towards the host country and its habitants.

The culture shock causes similar symptoms like stress. Therefore, it is also recognized as a stress reaction (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 16; Furnham, 1990, p. 281). During the international assignment, the expatriate is confronted with plenty of daily hassles which can cause some, but feasible problems. However, if they seem to accumulate, the expatriate gets the feeling of excessive demand and dissatisfaction of his stay abroad (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 16). Factors that provoke stress are ambiguity, unpredictability, loss of control, sensory overload (ibid.), role conflicts, ambiguity, and adjustment processes (Udris/Frese, 1992, p. 343). Thus, the stress-related culture shock may take many forms, like anger, anxiety, disappointment, embarrassment, frustration, identity confusion or impatience (Adler, 2002, p. 265).

To reduce the culture shock stress for global managers, Adler (2002, pp. 265–266) suggested the creation of personal stability zones, like going to an international club, watching movies in one’s native language, or checking into a home-country hotel for the weekend top, to reduce stress. Furthermore, it is recommendable to use stress management mechanisms, like meditation and relaxation techniques, keep a journal, or physical exercise. On the job, the expatriate must recognize that he/her will neither work as efficiently nor as effectively as before and consequently also adjust his/her expectations.

The mentioned culture shock symptoms vary in their number, duration and intensity depending on the person concerned (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 16). Factors that influence this variability can only be speculated. The U-curve model has its defects, since it is not clear if the phases can only proceed in this order, if phases can be left out, how long one phase lasts etc. (ibid.).

In 1985 Grove and Toribiörn developed a newer approach, trying to explain the subjective adaption process with the coherence of three psychological aspects: clarity of the mental frame of reference, applicability of behavior and the subjective level of mere adequacy (Kühlmann, 1995, p.8).

9.2.3 Types of reaction to culture shock

The positive adaption to the host culture has been finalized when the expatriate feels comfortable in his/her new environment and established social contacts to “natives” (social and non-work integration), and executes his/her professional task successfully (work integration). The expatriate, in this case Type A, overcomes the culture shock and reaches his original emotional satisfaction level. He combines his accustomed behavioral patterns with the newly learned ones (Synthesis) (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 17), feeling an attraction to the host culture, but preserving the own cultural norms (Integration) (Berry/Kailin, 1995). The international assignment and the conjoint experiences enrich the expatriate’s personality (Eulenburg, 2001, p. 70).

However, there are more ways of coping. There is the possibility of “going native”, which leads to the highest satisfaction level in the foreign culture, but causes problems when returning home. Type B – also called assimilation type – substitutes his behavioral patterns to the foreign one, absolutely refuses the own culture and loses the own cultural identity (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 17, Thomas/Hagemann, 1992, p. 179, Berry/Kailin, 1995). This coping behavior does not lead to better acceptance in the host culture On the contrary; the expatriate even loses his authenticity (Eulenburg, 2001, p. 70).

In total contrast to this, there is Type C who does not succeed in adapting to the host country’s culture, not overcomes the culture shock. This is also known as the the separation type, who just preserves his own culture, but does not feel attraction to the host culture (Berry /Kailin, 1995). This marginalization type refuses the host culture, avoids contact to the host country’s habitants and integration does not take place, since this type does not learn new behavioral patterns (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 17). Thomas and Hagemann call this the contrast-type (1992, p.179).

For the last type (D), the culture shock means a crucial crisis, resulting in defense-mechanisms with possibly even severe consequences like alcoholism, because there is a non-attraction felt to the host culture and the own cultural norms do not hold any longer. (Weaver, 1986, p. 112; Berry/Kailin, 1995).

Kühlmann (1995, p. 17) describes two more coping types, the addition type, who is an expatriate capable of using the host culture behavioral patterns, but just doing it selectively. Another rather inefficient type is the creation. In this case, expatriates unite the two cultural behavioral patterns to a new unit, which means a synthesis that is not adequate neither in the own nor in the host culture (ibid.).

9.2.4 Culture Shock: India

When you encounter a new environment, all habits and behaviors that allow you to get around survive at home suddenly no longer work. Things as simple and automatic as getting lunch, saying hello to colleagues, or setting up a meeting become difficult and strange. The rules have changed and no one has told you what the new rules are. Even as far as your understanding of truth is concerned not everybody sees it as binding. In order to get a better understanding what is meant in this context the following example should underline the difficult approach to get familiar with a new culture. There are a lot of things that strike people from other cultures when they interact with Indians for the first time (Messmer, 2009, p. 118–119):

1. Lack of order and structure

   Life functions differently in India, everything seems to run in its own rhythm. Following schedules, adherence or existence of rules cannot be taken for granted. Everybody follows their own destination, logic, and rhythm.

2. Decibel level

   Indians tend to speak all at the same time and at much louder volumes than necessary. People are used to living and working in overcrowded spaces and it is thought to be important to raise the voice in order to catch attention.

3. Display of emotions

   Indians control their emotions far less than foreigners do. Uncontrolled outbursts of irritation, overwhelming appreciation, open anxiety, and declaration of loyalty can be a challenge to deal with.

4. Respect for hierarchy

   Elders in the family enjoy a special superior status because of their seniority. Most organizations have a very steep hierarchy and authority is often not questioned.

5. Lack of private sphere

   Colleagues at work and also total strangers surprise you with questions about your age, work experience, marital status, number of children - and even your income. All this is not viewed as a violation of personal space in India. Colleagues at work are very much aware on where their peers stand in terms of monetary compensation.

6. Juggling of appointments and multitasking

   Appointments are not necessarily written in stone, as they are more considered like a tentative reservation that can be cancelled without notice if anything more important comes up. It is very rare that a telephone conference starts at the scheduled time; most Indian participants will dial in five to fifteen minutes later. When in a meeting, Indians will not switch off their cell phones but take each and every call – it might be an important one. This goes as far as telephone calls being answered while visiting the restroom.

7. Peace over truth

   In cases of conflicts or disputes, the value of peace comes before truth. This means that you will not be told the complete truth or be told an adjusted version of the story in order to allow the Indian to keep face and continue with a harmonic relationship. Facts can be switched and turned, if it serves a good purpose; there is not only one version of truth.

9.2.5 Culture Shock: Saudi Arabia

From 1991 till 1994 I have worked as a Senior Commercial Adviser for the GIZ (Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) former GTZ. During that time some challenging situations did occur in a completely new environment (Seminarunterlagen, 2012):

9.4.1 Aspects of a successful international assignments

In order to make an international assignment successful, the support of the whole family is needed. Thus, their willingness to relocate is a big step towards successful expatriation.

According to McNulty (2005), the factors influencing the willingness to relocate are: standard of education for children (66 %), company funded home-country visits (59 %), transferring spouse’s attitude towards relocating (57 %), ability to re-establish a support network (56 %), perceived standard of living in host-country (54 %), and the impact of relocation on trailing spouse’s career meaning the dual-career issue (35 %).

Moreover, important factors of organizational support for the success are the assistance to set-up internet and email (94 %), housing assistance (94 %), ongoing organizational support also after relocation (85 %), financial and time support for home-country visits (82 %), and the provision of extended time for the entire family to adjust including expatriate’s spouse (82 %). 26 % also listed the pre-departure training for the trailing spouse. For him or her, there is a strong need to establish or improve a direct communication link between the sponsoring organization and the spouse or partner, irrespective of their non-employee status with the organization (ibid.).

Windham International & NFTC (2006) identified major expatriate and family support initiatives:

• Better candidate assessment and selection
• Better assignment preparation
• Career-path planning for better cross-border skills utilization upon return
• Effective communication of assignment objectives
• Mandatory cross-cultural training
• More communications and recognition during an assignment
• Development of company intranet for expatriates
• Mandatory destination-support services

9.4.2 Role of the family

Companies sending their employees on international assignments do not only send one member of the staff but in many cases the family is part of the decision to go abroad. The influence of the family on the job as well as on the wellbeing of all family members was part of many studies. The families’ disposition to go, the adaption to and familiarization with the new culture has a great impact on the expatriates’ success and well-being (Kühlmann, 1995; Black/Gregersen 1990, Harvey, 1985; Mendenhall/Oddou 1985, Tung, 1981).

To specify the adaption problem for the spouse, there are three characteristics according to Kühlmann (1995, p. 20):

• Firstly, the spouse or partner is often forced to do nothing in the new country, because only the expatriate has been granted a work permit.
• Secondly, the partner experiences the phenomenon of the culture shock more intensively. The expatriate is supported by the familiarity of his work and his colleagues; the spouse has to manage the every-day-life in an alien culture, different habits and language.
• And lastly, compared to the expatriate, the partner normally is not so skilled in the foreign language and has to struggle with communication barriers and additionally has to handle the family’s needs.

Hence, the expatriate him/herself has the continuity of work, the children have the continuity of school, but the spouse has to give up his/her entire social life, the family, the friends and also his/her employment, and with that a feeling of usefulness. So the expatriate’s spouse is confronted with the greatest burden especially in the beginning phase (Adler, 1991). Although, as mentioned above, the spouse does not possess the language capability like the expatriate, he/she is responsible to build up the new household, doing the necessary phone calls and assuring the medical support etc. (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 41).

Aram et al. (1972) discovered that the positive support of a spouse to go abroad is important to the professional success of the expatriate.

Thus, it is not decisive for the acculturation of the expatriate if he/she is married, but if he/she gets emotional support of the family. Therefore, the spouse and children can be an important stress-coping resource, if they are not overstrained themselves with the experience of the alien culture (Fontaine, 1986). Additionally, there is the danger of the “contagion effect” of culture shock, meaning that the adaption difficulties of one family member influences the performance of the other, as it is described by Adelmann (1988, p. 192):

Since the dissatisfaction of the spouse is one of the most frequent reasons for expatriation failure as depicted above, companies relocating their staff should include the potential expatriates’ families within the selection and preparation process (Kühlmann, 1995, Tung, 1984). But reality still varies from the theoretical ideas. None of the questioned Spanish companies of the Deloitte and Touche survey (2003, p. 9) included the spouse or partner in the process of the expatriates’ selection. In the 2000 Survey of Key Trends in European Expatriate Management (PricewaterhouseCooper, 2000) the five least important criteria for selection of candidates were listed as: intercultural adaptability of the spouse, children’s educational needs, emotional resilience, spouse’s career (dual career issue), lifestyle suitability. It is interesting that these five least important criteria were also the most common reasons given for assignment failure (McNulty, 2005).

McNulty accentuates the role of the accompanying spouse as well as one of the most critical and important factors influencing international assignment success, since lack of spousal and family adjustment can have a direct impact on an expatriate employee’s performance.

In the following, the study of Windham International & NFTC (2006) will be analyzed. The survey revealed that the majority of expatriates were male (80 %), 60 % were married and 54 % had children accompanying them during an assignment (ibid., pp. 22–24). 82 % were accompanied by a partner. Whereby 51% of the partners had lost their employment due to the expatriation and remained unemployed.

Family challenges indicated by the respondents were children’s education (14 %), family adjustment (13 %), and partner resistance (13 %) being the most critical issues, followed by location difficulties (12 %), cultural adjustment (11 %), partner career (10 %), and 9 % even mentioned language difficulties (ibid, p. 43).

When asked about how companies assist spouses or partners, 69 % of respondents named language training, 36 % work permits, 30 % education/training assistance and 22 % employee assistance program services (ibid., p. 46).

In contrast to a Spanish company survey, where none of the questioned companies paid for the subscription at a sports or social club (Deloitte & Touche, 2003, p. 13), here 16 % offered a club membership (Windham international & NFTC, 2006, p. 46). However, only 17 % assisted in the job finding in the new country (ibid.), whereas this was offered by 27 % of the participants in the Spanish survey (Deloitte & Touche, 2003, p. 9).

McNulty (2005) mentioned five top factors for the success of spousal adjustment: a strong and stable marriage (99 %), access to technology like the internet (96 %), organizational assistance (94 %), degree of intimacy with other expatriates (87 %), and transferring spouse’s overall job satisfaction (76 %). 40 % also named children’s adjustment as essential.

There are different opinions at what age children should be involved in an intercultural preparation program. IFIM argues that those trainings are only relevant for teenagers from 16 years and older, because younger children lack the capability of mentally preparing for situations that are not immediate (IFIM, 2002/3, p. 3). It is more about responding to their emotions and preparing them for the relocation, and for that there are books helping the parents and the children to deal with the issue (ibid., p. 4). There is also the possibility that parents and their children visit interactive websites like www.ori-and-ricki.net, and web sites that prepare especially children for their adventure, like http://www.ipl.org/youth/cquest/.

A different view has Angelika Plett from mitteconsult Berlin (2009, p. 41) who describes the general situation for the children as:

As far as the age of the children is concerned, she says (ibid.):

In general, the expatriation must be pitched to the children, presenting them advantages of the stay abroad, answering their questions about the school and leisure time activities, giving solutions to their problems. Since often the most urgent issue is the loss of friends, the family can enable their children to communicate via Internet to keep in contact and prepare parties when visiting the home country (ibid., p. 3.).

9.4.3 Pre-departure preparation

To the degree that assignees are able to deal effectively with the challenges of encountering new cultures, their assignments will be successful. Thus, effective preparation, support and training for international assignments need to be based on sound research-supported models of the skills required to meet the challenges of those assignments for the assignees, their families accompanying them, those managing them, and the host with whom they are working. According to Britt (2002, p. 22), the second annual Global Expatriate Study revealed that nearly 40 % of the 709 responding expatriates stated that they were not adequately prepared for the international assignment.

 

Organizational preparation

Before expatriation, a high amount of organizational tasks has to be solved: obtaining all necessary documents (visa etc.), medical support, finding schooling possibilities for children, finding housing possibilities, making a new car available, etc. (Debrus, 1995a, p. 127)

According to Fitzgerald-Turner (1997, pp. 70–72), MNCs should hire a relocation service in the host country, so that the expatriate can concentrate on the challenges at work. Services provided include obtaining work permits, car and home insurance, locating housing, finding doctors and sorting out health care issues, selecting schools, and helping to assimilate in the new culture.

In Spain, 91 % of the companies pay for the relocation of the family, the same percentage pays the costs linked to accommodation for the first 15 days. All pay for the obtainment of the expatriate’s residence permit, and even 91 % cover those costs for the entire family (Deloitte & Touche, 2003, p.13).

 

Intercultural preparation

Besides the administrational preparation, intercultural orientation help is necessary. MNCs should also provide pre-departure assistance and ongoing consultation for expatriates and their families. It is crucial that, at the very least, basic language skills and cross-cultural training is offered (Fitzgerald-Turner, 1997, p.72). Training can help the manager and spouse to cope with adjustment difficulties; cultural training, language training, and practical training all seem to reduce expatriate failure (Vögel, 2006, p. 7).

The goal is to prepare the expatriate and the families for the new situation, sensitize them for different behavior and beliefs in the host culture, and achieve integration (Debrus, 1995a, p. 124). Pre-departure training programs administered by the parent company can ease the transition of the expatriates and facilitate expatriate adjustment to amenities, general living conditions and social interactions (Yavas/Bodur, 1999). Pre-departure preparations should include the teaching of effective communication styles, providing insight of stress management strategies, teaching expatriates how to work in teams and to manage conflicts, and how to manage relationships across the globe (Koteswari and Bhattacharya, 2007).

In general, intercultural training methods can be differentiated into information-oriented, culture-oriented and interaction-oriented training as it is illustrated in Fig. 9.6. The degree of active participation also greatly differs between the training programmes. Beyond that categorization, some intercultural training methods and measures wil be described in the following.

Linguistic preparation

Sufficient fluency of the host country’s language is essential to get integrated into the new culture. The linguistic preparation aims at imparting the language requisites to manage the new job task, but also for the integration in the host culture. The integration of the family in the linguistic preparation is vitally important, since the spouse and children are in more contact with the inhabitants and host culture (Debrus, 1995a, p. 125).

An exclusive reliance on English diminishes an expatriate’s ability to interact with the host country nationals, a willingness to communicate in the host country language can help to build rapport with local employees and improve the expatriate’s effectiveness (Hill, 2003, p. 617). Williams, associate of Mercer, states that linguistic and intercultural preparation can increase drastically the probability of international assignment success (Paus, 2006). At present about 75 percent of the companies questioned by the Mercer Human Resource Consulting survey offer language courses (ibid.).

 

Country information

Expatriates have a great interest in information about the host country, its people, habits, and culture. But it is not sufficient to supply tourism information. More important are facts about the living conditions, schools, shopping facilities, transportation possibilities, insurance and judicial questions, and medical support. It has been suggested that expatriates should receive training in the host country’s culture, history, politics, economy, religion, and social and business practices (Hill, 2005, p. 629).

Derbus demonstrates the manner how the Henkel KGaA solves the problem. They provide the expatriates with country information maps and more literature for the first meetings and get support by country reports of former expatriates (Debrus, 1995a, p. 126). More and more companies now include spouses in information sessions with relocation managers prior to the transfer (Hill, 2003, p. 616). DuPont, for instance, invites the spouse to attend an orientation session where they can ask specific questions about any aspect of the transfer (Vögel, 2006, p. 3). They feel that the relocation is very much a family dislocation and the extent that the spouse can feel a part of each step is important.

 

Former expatriate’s information

Former expatriates are helpful to support with insider know-how. However, the advice is very subjective and depends on the experience the expatriate and his family had made and could lead to discouragement (Debrus, 1995a, p. 126). Shell International employees simply contact Outpost, a network of 40 information centers set up for Shell expatriates and their families in 30 countries in the world. These Outpost Centers, staffed by the spouses of Shell’s expatriate employees, provide a comprehensive and personal briefing service to anyone who is considering or has accepted an international assignment. Moreover, the Outpost centers have structured welcome groups who help new families to get familiar with the new situation after their arrival (Sievers, 1998, pp. 9–10).

 

Culture Assimilator

During the last years, critical incidents have been modified to better conform to the requirements of a successful intercultural training. This process resulted in the development of the Culture Assimilator, which consists of several critical incidents that describe “incomprehensible” reactions of members of another culture. For each incident several answers are offered. The trainee is requested to decide on one of these possibilities and can read the feedback on his chosen answer. If it is not the right one, the reader has to try it again. When appropriate, the most important pieces of information are summarised at the end of each section. (Bittner, 2006, p. 2) Contents of these descriptions are anxieties, expectations, uncertainties, ambiguities, prejudices, attitudes, hierarchies, values and sense of time, just to mention some (Götz/Bleher, 2000, p. 37).

A major benefit of culture assimilators is the existence of both culture-general and culture-specific assimilators. The content is adaptable to a very high degree, because if existing assimilators are not suitable, the trainer can easily create his own assimilator by adjusting it to several factors such as gender, age and aims of the participants. (Landis/Bennett/Bennett, 2004, p. 69)

 

Role Plays

In role plays, a new situation is created in which the participant has to cope with a problem or task he or she is normally not confronted with, using his recent awareness and knowledge of the foreign culture. (Götz/Bleher, 2000, p. 43) The chosen situations should be relevant to the trainee’s job or situation. It is a good possibility for the attendees to try to participate with unfamiliar situations in a safe environment, getting the chance to try it again, and compare their own approach and solution to the other participants’ ones.

Furthermore, the future expatriates receive feedback, so that they can recognise their faults and get the opportunity to improve their intercultural skills. Role plays mostly motivate people, but there might still be some who feel uncomfortable with acting in front of others. In that case, the learning effect is inhibited by emotional rejection. (Landis/Bennett/Bennett, 2004, p. 61)

Simulation games

Simulation games are experiential exercises, in which the trainees re-enact situations which illustrate the contrastive features of different culture groups. Values, social behaviour or forms of motivation of culture groups are possible issues dealt with in the simulation. (Götz/Bleher, 2000, p. 39)

One simulation game which has become very famous is called “BaFá BaFá” and was established by Robert Shirts. In this game, two completely different cultures are created. Members of the Alpha culture place a high value on relationships whereas the Beta culture is a rather materialistic trading culture. After the members have learned the rules of their culture, they are exchanged. Possible results like stereotyping and misunderstanding are discussed later in the debriefing phase. (Shirts, 1974, p. 23)

The game is mostly used for people who are going abroad for a longer period, and therefore need the knowledge about communication barriers, value differences, the reduction of prejudices and many more. It is a good opportunity to test and improve your own behaviour within your culture and in exchange with other cultures in a safe environment. Many simulation games take at least three hours, which might be a disadvantage, if the time frame of the whole training is strictly limited. (Landis/Bennett/Bennett, 2004, p. 63)

With the help of these experiential methods the trainees get the impression that cultural differences can influence relationships in a negative manner, which can also have an unfavourable impact on the way of living and working in the host country. On the other hand, trainees have to learn that there are not only disadvantages, but also many positive influences. One must neither suppress his own nor the foreign culture, but gain the positive from the differences. (Puck, 2006, p. 19)

 

Look-and-see-trip

It is advisable to arrange a short 5–7-day trip before the formal departure. Those short pre-expatriation visits of the expatriate and his or her partner is a possibility for the expatriate to meet the new colleagues and for the accompanying partner to look for accommodation and register the children in schools (Derbus, 1995a, p. 127). This short trip cannot prepare the expatriate for the habits of a culture, but it can shorten the preparation period and encourage the willingness for expatriation.

The study of Deloitte & Touche (2003) shows that the majority of 64 percent of the questioned companies in Spain paid for the look-and-see-trip for the expatriates and the accompanying partner to get familiar with the new destination. 18 percent only paid for the expatriate him-/herself and another 18 percent did not pay a look-and-see-trip at all.

9.4.4 Expatriate support

There are three categories of expatriates’ support according to Schröder (1995, p.146): Professional support, administrative support, and psychological support. The professional support provides general information and gives the expatriate some specific information about the job, takes care of a contact person within the organization, or a cultural mediator and so on (ibid.). Administrative support involves all tasks necessary for the relocation, like remuneration calculation, transfer tasks like running errands and finding housing possibilities (ibid). Many companies engage a professional relocation service for that purpose. Normally, much of those tasks had to be fulfilled before the departure, but must be carried on afterwards as well (ibid.). Psychological support is confronted with the challenge of helping the expatriate and his/her family with the adjustment process and settling in, and preventing or alleviating stress situations that in the initial phase tend to be a factor (ibid.).

Black et al. (1991) argued that the degree of cross-cultural adjustment should be treated as a multidimensional concept, rather than a unitary phenomenon as was the dominating view previously. In their proposed model for international adjustment, Black et al. (1991) proposed two major components of the expatriate adjustment process. The first aspect, anticipatory adjustment, includes selection mechanisms and accurate expectations, which are based on training and previous international experience.

However, the proper level of anticipatory adjustment facilitates the second major component, the in-country adjustment. This component consists of four main factors: job (role clarity, discretion, conflict, and novelty), organizational (organizational culture novelty, social support, and logistical help), non-work (culture novelty and spouse adjustment), and individual (self-efficacy, relation skills, and perception skills) factors (Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999). Thus, in-country adjustment influences three main dimensions of adjustment:

1. adjustment to work.
2. adjustment to interacting with host nationals.
3. adjustment to the general non-work environment.

This theoretical framework of international adjustment covers socio-cultural aspects of adjustment and it has been supported by a series of empirical studies of U.S. expatriates and their spouses (Selmer, n.d., p. 8).

Nevertheless, there are several deficits when looking at the MNCs performance of expatriation support. The three main shortcomings are the fade-out of family problems, the lack of further on-site training and preparation, and missing help for unpredictable difficulties (Schröder, 1995, p. 149).

It is important to consider that the expatriation support is a social resource, there are several sources (colleagues, mentor, family), but also different manners of social support (ibid., p. 156). Due to that, expatriation support must only be used in short term, but as a support system at all times during the international assignment (ibid.).

 

Adjustment to the general non-work environment

In order to adjust to the non-work environment, stress coping has to be considered, since it is proved that culture shock shows similar signs to stress.

Psychologists have proposed two approaches to cope with expatriate stress: Symptom-focused strategies and problem-focused strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Symptom-focused strategies are used to diminish emotional distress by attending to behavior and expression, physiological disturbance and subjective distress. Problem-focused coping strategies are efforts to take constructive action to change the situation creating the stress and address the problem and minimize the anxiety and distress (Folkman et al., 1986). Expatriates who use the problem-focused coping strategy will be able to cope better with the stress than the symptom-focused coping strategy. Hence expatriates should be trained in using the constructive coping strategy (Koteswari/Bhattacharya, 2007).

Furthermore, practical training is aimed at helping the expatriate manager and family ease themselves into day-to-day life in the host country. The sooner the routine is established, the prospects are better that the expatriate and his/her family will adapt successfully. One critical need is a support network of friends for the expatriate (Vögel, 2006, p. 11). One of the main burdens of expatriates is the breaking up of social relationships (Fontaine, 1986). One solution is the expatriate community, which can be a useful source of support and information, and can be crucial for helping the families adapt to the foreign culture (Hill, 2003, p. 617). The integration into social networks can help to prevent psychological and physical health problems and family crises (Fanning, 1967, Loewenthal/Snedden, 1981).

Moreover, social contacts help with their experience in the foreign culture, for instance how to handle errands etc. They enable the expatriate to deal with the confusing impressions and negative feelings by just sympathetic listening and convey the feeling of appreciation, belonging, and trust (ibid.). Nowadays, the Internet is a potential social contact using expatriate websites like www.expatexchange.com. Social contacts are a cornerstone for the overall success. They enable the expatriate to integrate and handle the new cultural environment (Schröder, 1995, p.154).

Both culture novelty, which is the perceived distance between the host and home cultures, and spouse/family adjustment have been found to be significantly related to expatriate adjustment (Black/Gregersen, 1991). Lower levels of perceived discrepancy between host and home cultures (e.g. less cultural novelty) will facilitate expatriate interaction and general adjustment (Shaffer/Harrison/Gilley, 1999). Therefore, Sievers (1998, p. 9) makes suggestions on how MNCs can support the trailing spouse and families of expatriates while on an international assignment. MNCs should help the spouse to find employment, since the spouse needs the possibility of self-fulfillment (Debrus, 1995b, p. 166). Since, the non-work factors, culture novelty and spouse adjustment, are important direct effects of interaction and general adjustment, cross-cultural training for expatriates and their spouses, whose own adjustment will likely be affected by culture novelty, is vital for the success of international assignments.

To get familiar with the new environment is always a challenge, but insufficient language skills, loneliness, boredom and a sense of meaninglessness are much more challenging (Adler, 2002, p. 312). Expatriates’ wifes or the non-working partners feel alone and sometimes misunderstood, which leads to demotivation and frustration. For that purpose, some internet addresses like www.expatwomen.com or www.femmexpat.com can be seen as an additional help. Certainly, this can also apply to husbands or male partners.

The Henkel corporation supports the spouse integration with systematic language courses, including them within pre-departure preparation, trying to find employment possibilities within the company, administrative support for work permits, and the help to find employment opportunities in other companies (Debrus, 1995b, p. 166), since higher levels of logistical support will facilitate expatriate interaction and general adjustment (Shaffer/Harrison/ Gilley, 1999).

In the beginning of the assignment, the work load for the expatriate is very high because he or she has to get familiar with a lot of different tasks in a completely new environment. There is less time left to take care of the family and the kids, exactly at a time when the family needs attention and support. Therefore, Van Swol-Ulbrich suggests to invest as much time as possible for the family, when expatriates arrive in a country (2007). It is up to the company to understand these needs. The expatriates should get some additional time, especially at the beginning of his job, to take care of tasks directly or indirectly related to the family, like school transfer, Kindergarten, the distance to the next supermarket, the availability of the car and so on. Van Swol-Ulbrich states that the first three months are like the first 100 days in office of a new government. They are crucial but you can get away with a lot during this time, since the employer will understand that the expatriate might need to take off an afternoon or to come in a little later because of things that had to be done at home (ibid.). If the expatriate does not take advantage of this, the first 100 days will be quickly over and the employer will no longer be so supportive.

One of the most challenging questions to be raised in this context is the future of the accompanying partner (Adler, 2002, p. 316). The spouses/partners often engage in cultural or charitable tasks, or leisure time activities, although that does not help their career development (ibid., p. 167). Additionally, the possibility to start another academic study is not promoted in many countries due to foreigner quota, or acceptance of foreign diploma (ibid.). At least there is now a chance within the European Union, since restrictions have disappeared. More frequently today the question focus on identifying ways for the spouse to continue a career while living abroad. One solution could be using the internet for dual career possibilities, for instance www.netexpat.com, www.overseasjobs.com, www.partnerjob.com, www.r-e-a.com, www.focus-info.org, www.outpostexpat.nl.

Adjustment to work

According to Yavas and Bodur (1999) job/task characteristics and organizational variables are also believed to affect expatriate adjustment like role ambiguity or role clarity, role discretion (Black, 1988; 1990), role conflict and role novelty (Black, 1988) and organizational culture and size (McEvoy/Parker, 1995). Role clarity and role discretion will facilitate expatriate work adjustment, whereas role novelty and role conflict will inhibit expatriate work adjustment (Shaffer/Harrison/Gilley, 1999). The significance of three job-related factors (i,e., role clarity, role discretion, and role novelty) highlights the importance of job design to the success of international assignments. This suggests that multinational firms should place more emphasis on designing global positions that expatriates have more clearly defined jobs and greater decision-making authority (ibid.). Additionally, greater levels of pre-departure training may be necessary for expatriates expected to experience higher levels of role novelty (ibid.).

Moreover, the quality of work relationships is crucial for the success of any assignment. Relationships between superiors and subordinates who are from different cultures form the significant aspect of multi-national organization effectiveness (Ralston/Terpstra/Cunniff/ Gustafson 1995). Higher levels of social support from supervisors and coworkers will facilitate expatriate work adjustment (Shaffer/Harrison/Gilley, 1999). Companies which are successful in assimilating non-natives into their workforces provide training not only to the expatriates but also to their local supervisors (John/Roberts, 1996).

Beneficial for the challenges at work is the allocation of a tutor or mentor that helps to integrate the expatriate in the new working environment. This mentor is the contact person on-site and has a pate function. The help of a tutor encompasses: personal adviser, giving the expatriate a feeling of security, giving evaluations and feedbacks and be a source of formal and informal social contact, and prevents professional isolation (Debrus, 1995b, p.168; Koteswari & Bhattacharya, 2007). To fulfill the task of a mentor, there is a need for continuous dialogue which is based upon regular meetings and an open exchange of opinions (Schröder, 1995, p. 148, Koteswari/Bhattacharya, 2007).

Experience has shown that it can have a negative influence if the colleagues are country fellowmen that make the expatriate insecure with negative talking (ibid.). But helpful colleagues and supervisors are a social resource for the expatriate and can reduce stress and prevent stress reactions (Udris, 1982). It is even proven that social support of the spouse and family cannot substitute the social backing of fellow workers (Schröder, 1995, p. 154). This social support has the characteristics of informational support, looking at advices, hints, and information, and the appraisal support, giving the expatriate feedback about his/her behavior and work (Schröder, 1995, pp. 154–155).

Within the professional area, it is often up to the expatriate if he/ she is accepted by his/her colleagues. Efforts to learn the host language are positively evaluated. Another strong advice is that expatriate among one another should not speak in their home country language, because they separate themselves from the others and create an atmosphere of mistrust (Debrus, 1995b, p. 174).

 

Adjustment to interacting with host nationals

Previous international experience and fluency in the host-country language have significant, direct effects on expatriate interaction adjustment.

The social integration of the expatriate and his/her family depends a lot on their ability to speak the host country’s language, since it is a powerful mean to communicate and interact. Language skills help to adapt to the new environment and to understand the new culture (Debrus, 1995b, p. 175). Despite the prevalence of English, an exclusive reliance on the same diminishes an expatriate manager’s ability to interact with host country nationals. Knowledge and fluency in local language enable expatriate to understand and communicate effectively. Expatriate should be definitely trained in the foreign languages in view of the future need (Koteswari/Bhattacharya, 2007).

Moreover, the number, variety and intensity of social contacts that are established during the expatriation with fellow countrymen and members of the host country, are determinants for a successful adaption to the foreign culture (Kühlmann, 1995, p. 20). Those contact persons can support the interpretation of the initially strange experiences in the host country and can serve as a role model for adequate behavior (ibid., p. 21). Thus, when the expatriate is sent on the assignment to the host country, he or she will get better adjusted and will be less frustrated by cultural differences than expatriates who are isolated and have less communication with the host country nationals (Hanvey, 1979; Selmer, 1999).

9.4.5 Training methods and their application in the training practice

In the framework of university projects and assignments, we regularly try to get in contact with companies in order to find out to what extent intercultural training programs are asked for and which methods are applied in the training practice among others.

In a project study conducted in 2008, training institutes were e.g. asked which methods they used and how high those were in demand. Sixteen institutes kindly filled in the questionnaire. In the following, selected results and a consequent analysis can be found.

9.5.1 Kwintessential

Kwintessential was conceptualised in 2003 by three partners keen to support businesses through the challenges of globalization and internationalization. They foresaw the future demand for language service and solutions as well as culturally and globally savvy insight into business functions. The company started offering language lessons, cultural awareness training, translation and interpreting services. It expanded to encompass further key products such as website design, desktop publishing, conference interpreting and transcription. They started their business in Hounslow before moving to Croydon. From there the business has grown and now operates within the UK from offices in Somerset (HQ), Croydon and Central London. Abroad, the clients are served by local offices in America, South Africa, Switzerland, the UAE and Argentina. They do offer two main areas:

1. Localisation, Translation and Language
2. Training and Consultancy

9.5.2 CDC – Carl Duisberg Centren

This institution was first founded under the name “Carl Duisberg Gesellschaft” in 1962 as a non-profit organisation offering accommodations for foreign scholarship receivers. It changed its name into “Carl Duisberg Centren” in 1965. Apart from initiating language programmes in the 1960s and 1970s the CDC began to provide their first training programmes for businessrepresentatives in 1976. Since then they have become an internationally operating training institution with branches from Russia, China and Malaysia to Cameroon and several positions in Germany. The headquarters are located in Cologne.

This organisation defines itself as a non-profit service provider in the education and qualification sector. It focuses not only on foreign language programmes for students but also intercultural competence training with private and business customers as well as public sector clients and international institutions. In order to act under the name of a non-profit organisation it targets projects that contribute to society. Limiting communication problems and encouraging people to gain an understanding of cultural diversity has been its intention for years.

To meet own quality standards the CDC collaborate with business experts who bring invaluable practical experience with them. This practice-orientation has always been a major criterion for their performance. Apart from cultural awareness and culture-specific training a coaching service for managers and an assessment tool of the intercultural competence for personnel is also offered. (CDC Website)

9.5.3 IFIM – Institute for Intercultural Management

Founded in 1990, the “Institute for Intercultural Management” in Königswinter, Germany, rapidly assumed its position as a leading provider of cross-cultural training services. It has further gained reputation for scientific research in the field of practice-orientation through its numerous publications. The long-term research about culture-related society differences in business interactions allows a profound and substantiated training service.

A special emphasis lies on meeting the needs of its customers. Their tasks range from a foreign assignment in leading positions, negotiating across national borders or managing multinational teams and helping to assume leading roles in joint ventures and product launches which are covered additionally by its experts. Further, IFIM supports projects for companies that plan to go international from the beginning to the final implementation. In order to improve the quality of all offered seminars, the participants are asked to evaluate the benefit of the training even twelve months after leaving the country. Until 2008, the IFIM has covered a wide range of different countries from all over the world.

However, not just training seminars for Germans are offered, but also American and French people can get an insight into the business practices and cultural particularities. Moreover, the institute provides a detailed preparation service homepage filled with recommendations for current and future expatriates. (IFIM Website)

9.5.4 IKUD – Institute for Intercultural Didactics

The registered association “Institute of Intercultural Didactics” was founded in the year 2000. It is the successor of the same-called institution of the German “Georg-August University” of Göttingen. IKUD gained its expertise through long-term research and is experienced in teaching for more than 30 years now.

Developing and implementing new training approaches for culture-specific seminars lies in the focus of its members. They further publish articles in the field of intercultural didactics. Workshops and lectures to provide a comprised way to convey knowledge are part of their work. Usually, their customers come from companies as well as from organisations which IKUD consults on teaching and training methods. Among their activities is also the development and testing of building block systems that help to improve target group specific trainings. These building blocks are for instance culture-contrast experiences or aim at recognizing own cultural patterns. IKUD is also a partner of municipal projects encouraging intercultural awareness and promoting the integration of migrants. (IKUD-Website)

9.5.5 Further training institutes

• Asien-Pazifik Institut für Management in Hamburg
• Gesellschaft für interkulturelle Kommunikation und Auslandsvorbereitung in Hildesheim
• Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen in Stuttgart
• Institut für interkulturelle Kommunikation in Aachen
• ICUnet.AG in various German cities, Vienna and Shanghai

9.6.1 Global Corporate Etiquette

Target group: project managers/project leaders

Duration: 1 day

 

 

Focus:

Global Etiquette today goes a long way in determining one’s acceptance in business interactions. As they say, we don’t get a second chance to make a first impression. By ironing out deviations from expected international norms of behavior, we improve our chances of operating successfully in a multinational business environment.

 

 

Objectives:

• Understanding the importance of good mannerisms and their importance in the Global Business environment
• Developing professional work habits and corporate pride through appropriate office conduct and discipline
• Developing an understanding of image in business and use of appropriate etiquette for business communication
• Learning the art of conversation, correct dining etiquette and the importance of interacting in a relaxed and confident style

Contents:

• Importance of etiquette excellence
• Professional presence in business meetings and maintaining the office decorum
• Successful encounters in the profession
• Diplomacy and its 3-dimensions
• Specific mannerisms such as exchanging business cards and dining habits in business gatherings

Methodology

• Video presentations/clips
• Simulation
• Games and Group Discussions

In: Robert Bosch India Limited: Enhancing Competencies – Behavioral, Intercultural, CIP and Leadership Programs & Offerings, 2006, p. 18

9.6.2 Intercultural Training: Country-specific

Focus:

[…] In an increasingly globalized world, it is vital to become more aware of one’s own culture and to have a better understanding of other cultural environments. The aim of this program is to increase understanding, tolerance, respect for a specific country and the concerning culture. It enables to communicate appropriately to the specific intercultural situation and to grab business opportunities. Currently we are offering Country specific training for Germany, India, Japan, China, Austria, USA, Switzerland, Korea, Brazil, France, Italy, UK and Netherlands.

 

Objectives

• Understanding the purpose of intercultural sensitivity
• Reflecting on one’s own attitudes, behaviors and cultural patterns
• Training to change perspectives by using different “cultural glasses”
• Gaining data competence on country specific issues
• Developing social and self-competence

Contents

• Cognitive Approach: information on political, historical, economical issues
• Communicative Approach: information on everyday life, forms of communication, ways of working and living
• Intercultural Approach: sensitization for other cultures and understanding of cultural differences
• Empathy and Social Competence

Methodology

• Case Studies/Critical incidents
• Culture-Assimilator-Method
• Role-plays
• Group-Activity/Discussion

In: Robert Bosch India Limited: Enhancing Competencies – Behavioral, Intercultural, CIP and Leadership Programs & Offerings, 2006, p. 16

9.7.1 Intercultural preparation in big companies

In June 2009 Susanne Kluth, Jonas Linke and Hendrik Walter, students of “Baltic Management Studies“ in Stralsund, conducted a survey among 21 big international companies, including Aida-Seetours, BBC World Service, BMW, Brose, Daimler, Deere, Deutsche Bank, Hannover Rückversicherung, Hitachi, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Schott, Sear, Shell, Villeroy & Boch.

• 1. How would you rate the importance of intercultural preparation?

Number of answers: 21
From 1 (unimportant) to 6 (very important)

• 2. How many employees do you send abroad each year?

Number of answers: 20
0–5: 2 (10.00 %)
5–20: 9 (45.00 %)
20–100: 4 (20.00 %)
>100: 5 (25.00 %)

• 3. Do your expatriates receive intercultural preparation?

Number of answers: 21
Yes: 18 (85.7 %)
No: 3 (14.3 %)

• 4. Is intercultural training offered to their families?

Number of answers: 21
Yes: 11 (52.4 %)
No: 10 (47.6 %)

• 5. Do you train your future expatriates in your company or do you hire a special training institute?

Number of answers: 20

• 6. How long does the training last?

Number of answers: 19
1 day: 4 (21.05 %)
3 days: 4 (21.05 %)
1 week: 1 (5.26 %)
Weekly seminars: 1 (5.26 %)
Others: 9 (47.37 %)
e.g.:

• – sometimes 1 day, but sometimes several months
• – depends on the location
• – various offerings
• – 1 day intercultural, language training is offered permanent (weeks, months...)
• – 12 weeks
• – varies depending on circumstances
• – 2 days to 4 weeks (included in other trainings)

• 7. When does the training phase start?

Number of answers: 19
1 year before: – (0.00 %)
6 months before: 2 (10.53 %)
3 months before: 7 (36.84 %)
< 3 months before: 10 (52.63 %)

• 8. Of which components does the training consist?

Number of answers (several answers possible): 20
Linguistic Preparation: 12 (21.43%)
Intercultural training seminars: 12 (21.43%)
Country information and briefing the culture of the host country: 16 (28.57%)
Expatriate colleagues’ information: 8 (14.29%)
Look-and-see-trip: 8 (14.29%)
Others: – (0.00%)

• 9. Are former expatriates a part of the intercultural training?

Number of answers: 19
Yes: 7 (36.8 %)
No: 12 (63.2 %)

• 10. Do you think the preparation is sufficient?

Number of answers: 19
Yes: 17 (89.5 %)
No: 2 (10.5 %)

• 11. How much money do you spend on intercultural preparation per year?

Number of answers: 17

e.g.:

• – more than 50.000€
• – don’t know

Source: Kluth/Linke/Walter, 2009, p. 45

9.7.2 Intercultural preparation in SME

Four years later, the same questionnaire was sent to 100 small and medium seized companies by the students Hannes Borgwardt, Lasse Frank and Christopher Stubenrauch. The following results (extract) show that the majority of participating SME does not offer intercultural training for their expatriates and if training is offered, it starts rather late in the preparation process and usually is fairly short. Still, the absolute majority of companies considers the preparation of their employees as sufficient. We can conclude that many internationally active SME need to pay more attention to the topic of intercultural preparation.

 

1. Do your expatriates receive intercultural preparation?

Number of answers: 23
Yes: 9 (39.1 %)
No: 14 (60.9 %)

 

2. How long does the training last?

Number of answers: 19

3. When does the training phase start?

Number of answers: 18

4. Of which components does the training consist?

5. Do you think the preparation is sufficient?

Number of answers: 23
Yes: 3 (13 %)
No: 20 (87 %)

Source: Borgwardt, H./Frank, L./Stubenrauch, C., 2014, pp. 64ff

9.8.1 Definitions

To explain the difficulties upon the return of an employee, several terms are used: re-entry, reintegration or repatriation. All three of them define the process when an employee, who has been abroad for some years, returns to the parent company. (Kühlmann/Stahl 1995, p. 178).

A well organised repatriation is an important key factor in the process of an international assignment (Weber et al. 2001, p. 196). This becomes clear by looking at the various aims of a stay abroad in the eyes of the company. Those can be summarised as follows: 1) The employee goes abroad in terms of a management or control function, e.g. knowledge should be transferred or new technologies and product lines have to be implemented. 2) Another main focus of an international assignment is the personal development of the employee. Benefits from the international experience, the development of intercultural competences and the personal progress in management skills as a leader are important factors in the personal advancement. 3) Finally, companies are sending their employees abroad in order to broaden their international network and to further develop the organisation with the help of the returning employee’s knowledge (Klemm/Popp, 2006, p. 191; Mesmer-Magnus/Viswesvaran, 2008, p. 184; Weber et al., 2001, p. 196).

Expatriates have gained experiences which are often very useful to identify measures of improvement in the parent company. This aspect points out how important it is for the company to invest in the successful reintegration of their employees, in order to retain them in the company and to profit from their qualifications in various meanings in the long run. Nevertheless, the practice looks slightly different: The average attrition rate for international assignments was 12 % (BGRS, 2012, p. 24). Among the international assignees who left the company, 24 % left within one year of repatriation (ibid.). Another survey conducted by Deloitte & Touche (2008, pp. 23f) states that 25% of the companies leave their repatriates alone in this last phase of the process. However, initiatives to develop a reintegration programme will lead to improved results. With 30 %, repatriation belongs to the top five priorities in managing mobility that companies want to focus on in the next year (Rodin, 2012).

9.8.2 The repatriation process

The reintegration of the expatriate is the last step of the four-part international assignment process:

This statement was made by an executive who returned from his international assignment. A survey conducted by Deloitte & Touche (2008, pp. 23f), who interviewed 200 globally active companies in Germany, points out that only 7 % offer repatriation trainings and 5 % provide a post-processing training after the return to the home country. The extent of scientific literature also leaves to be desired (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 177).

The general preception is quite obvious that those who are coming home do not face any substantial difficulties. But the companies do not realize that the once familiar environment has become alien due to a long absence and changes, so the employee often has a feeling of being thrown back (Klemm/Popp, 2006, pp. 201f). A second culture shock is experienced during the settling in period (Rothlauf, 2012, p. 365). The sociocultural problems are thereby seen as most critical (Ladwig/Loose, 1998, pp. 59ff). This has the following background: Firstly, the employee has gained new insights through the contact with a foreign culture. Other ways of life have been recognised and might have led to a conscious or unconscious adaption and a change of the own behaviour. Secondly, the experiences made abroad have changed the perception of the home country. Circumstances in both countries are compared, for example the higher flexibility in the host country on the one hand and the structure at home, which is perceived as complicated and tight, on the other hand (Hirsch, 2003, pp. 418f). This raises the question for the employee, whether to adjust to the situation at home or to decide for another international assignment. Those aspects point out how extensive the return phase is, which situations the repatriate has to deal with and how important it becomes for the company to support this reintegration process. Neglecting the concerns of the employee and leaving him or her alone has far-reaching consequences for the company (Hirsch, 2003, p. 427; Horsch, 1995, pp. 104f).

9.8.3 Major difficulties for employees

To reintegrate the employee in the parent company’s structure in terms of offering an appropriate position might cause difficulties for the company as well for the employee. The expectations of the employee to move on with his career, getting promoted to a new more challenging job than the previous one, can cause some problems.

Work-related problems

The reasons why employees are highly motivated to go abroad for a couple of years – especially for younger employees – are manigfold. Whereas the younger generation is trying to get in touch which a completely new environment, the older employees rather focus on further job experiences and to escape from everyday-work in the home country (Blom/Meier, 2004, pp. 163f). However, the personal career development remains as one of the main motives for both. During their assignment, they have often had more responsibility than in their job at home and have worked in smaller dimensions. The employee has learned to work in a rather complex environment. Especially the personal and managerial competences were hereby strongly developed (Berthier/Roger, 2013, pp. 158–163). After returning to the home country, the employee wants to apply those experiences.

In addition to his or her expectations, the returning employee might have to deal with the following changes and challenges:

• Technological developments could have the effect that the employee’s professional knowledge is outdated.
• Changes in formal and informal operations and information channels of the organisation might lead to adjustment problems – especially if the expatriate and the parent company have had only little contact. The result is a feeling of isolation and the host country becomes an exile.
• A poor repatriation policy leads to dissatisfied repatriates and might result in a high attrition rate. This is especially the case if the employees know that other companies would invest more in their competences.
• “Out of sight, out of mind” syndrome: Companies might forget about their expatriates and their return, so that nothing or only little has been planned for their arrival. This leads to a high degree of frustration of the repatriate (Weber et al., 2001, p. 137f).

Job position

First of all, the employee has to deal with a salary decrease after the return, as the additional allowances are omitted and also with a loss of status (Emrich, 2011, pp. 189f). The position in the host country often offers employees a better social standing, especially if it is the work of a branch manager (Dülfer/Jöstingmeier, 2008, p. 544). If this is the case, the employee holds a social position that can be compared to the one of a member of the diplomatic service. If the subsidiary is even located in the capital of the country, the expatriate might be invited to important national events etc. that are organised by the home country’s embassy. There, he or she could get in contact with ministers, high officials and influential representatives of companies in the host country. A discontinuation of those privileges can cause dissatisfaction for the employee. There is no participation in public life anymore, especially on a national level. The social contacts are firstly confined to colleagues, acquaintances or neighbours. Life seems rather provincial (ibid.).

Another major factor is the undervaluation of the international experiences by companies (ibid.). Some employees experience a career setback, as the new job does not offer the opportunity to apply the gained knowledge or the position does not match their expectations. Temporary project work is also a solution offered if there is no vacancy (Hirsch, 2003, p. 418; Kühlmann, 2004, p. 26). According to Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran (2008, pp. 195f), half of the employees feel that the re-entry position is less satisfying than the position they held abroad. They are not pleased with the career planned by the HRM. Also Stahl et al. (2009, p. 91) point out that “although top managers often claim that global mobility and international experience are highly valued assets and a prerequisite for promotion into senior management, the career implications for employees returning from an international assignment are often disappointing.” Consequently, they leave the company and look for a position that corresponds to their expectations, as they know that their international experience is a competitive advantage on the job market (Berthier/Roger, 2013, pp. 163f; Hirsch, 2003, p. 418). Nevertheless, many companies try to find an appropriate job that fits to the qualifications of the repatriate (Dülfer/Jöstingmeier, 2008, pp. 543f) Entitlements are in most cases implemented in the company’s repatriation policy.

Overall, it is an uncertain situation causing stress for the repatriate. The dissatisfaction of the employees even increases if they realise that former colleagues have got several promotions in the meantime (ibid., p. 546). They get the impression that the international assignment has a negative impact on their own career and that it does not bring the promised effect in the parent company.

 

Knowledge transfer

Further problems concern the company’s disinterest in the employee’s acquired knowledge and experiences (Schipper, 2007, p. 111). This seems surprising, as a transfer of knowledge offers the opportunity to create a global mindset within the company. Especially nowadays, this has a significant importance, since the economy becomes increasingly global (Kühlmann /Stahl, 1995, p. 189). The company can benefit, for example, from the repatriate’s openness to foreign working methods and lifestyles or the independence in thinking and acting (ibid.) Knowledge transfer also helps future expatriates in their preparation. It is also an advantage for colleagues going abroad to get some useful information about some peculiarities of the host country (Berthier/Roger, 2013, p. 152). Nonetheless, repatriates, who would like to share and apply their skills, often encounter resistance from their surroundings (Kühlmann/Stahl 1995, p. 189).

Hirsch (2003) critically remarks that negative perceptions by colleagues often concern the country in which the assignee stayed. Some of them also have the attitude that repatriates have enjoyed a well-paid holiday overseas and are now learning how to work in Germany again (ibid., p. 422). It is difficult for them to understand how the repatriate has changed and what he or she is talking about. The colleagues cannot find access to the ideas of the repatriate, as they cannot identify themselves with the situations abroad (ibid.). They have got the idea that the returning employee is the one who has to adapt to the circumstances that dominate the home country and not the other way round. Resistance and a lack of understanding by colleagues are therefore the main problems that the employee is confronted with and which cause the feeling of high pressure for the employee itself (Hirsch, 2003, p. 422; Klemm/Popp, 2006, pp. 201f). The chance to benefit from the ideas of the repatriate is not yet seen by most of the companies.

Considering the advantages of collecting the repatriates’ knowledge and the insufficient use of this possibility in companies nowadays, Adler (1981, p. 355) points out that it is clearly recognisable that this process has to be reconsidered by the companies’ management: “One may wonder whether “effectiveness” means simply fitting back in the home organisation or contributing maximally towards the goals of the organisation and using the skills acquired abroad” (ibid.).

9.8.4 Personal and intercultural problems

Another field where the employee and the accompanying family might have to face challenges is the personal and social area back in their home country. The feeling that can dominate the situation at home is that of a stranger, even if the environment and the culture is familiar. Repatriates describe this situation as “life in the middle” or a “not yet, not anymore” feeling (Hirsch, 2003, p. 417f). This re-socialisation process takes time, depending on the person itself, the overall reintegration situation and the support from others, especially the company, family and friends (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 179).

As mentioned before, two of the main changes are the new financial situation and the lower social standing in the home country (Schipper, 2007, p. 111; Weber et al. 2001, p. 138). Those two aspects influence the private environment of the expatriate and the family as well. In addition, the social environment might have changed as well. The society can be different due to certain events or technical innovations (Emrich, 2011, p. 189f). Furthermore, the relationship to family, friends and acquaintances can be less intense or even difficult if there has been only little contact during the time abroad (Schipper, 2007, p. 111). Moreover, it might be hard to to renew the old contacts as the own personality has changed and therefore the expatriate and the family now have other attitudes not matching the ones from their former social network anymore (ibid.). They have experienced challenging and different situations abroad and have developed a broader intercultural understanding. This results for example in another way of life which others might not necessarily understand, as they might hold little interest interested in hearing about it (Weber et al., 2001, p. 138). As a consequence, life back home

If children have stayed abroad, an adequate school has to be found that supports them in the transitional phase and which fits to their education level in order to avoid problems (Kühlmann, 2004, p. 29). This requires a lot of additional work because the old school may not be the best choice anymore and if the new job is offered in another city, completely new challenges are waiting for the kids to be solved.

The transition from the foreign culture to the familiar culture does not always happen smoothly for everyone. The once familiar culture might have become alien due to a long absence. This effect is even stronger if no home trips were made during the time abroad (Klemm/Popp, 2006, p. 205). The acculturation phase often includes a second culture shock

(Mesmer-Magnus/Viswesvaran, 2008, pp. 195ff). A reflection of the intercultural experiences in living and working abroad is also an integral part of this process (Menis, 2009, p. 82).

9.8.5 Phases of reintegration

Coming home from an international assignment causes a lot of problems because the expectations of the employee and his family are not always in line with the real situation he or she is confronted with. As further pointed out in the study by Stroh et al. (2000, pp. 684ff), it therefore plays a significant role to what extent the employee’s expectations are met, exceeded or whether they remain unfulfilled after the return, as the commitment to the company depends significantly on this situation (ibid., p. 685). This includes, which feelings and expectations the individual might have, which will be explained with the help of three models.

Reverse culture shock

The reverse culture shock is a pervasive occurrence that repatriates experience in their home country. It was the American anthropologist Oberg who found out that longer stays abroad lead to a mental and physical strain caused by a new work and living environment (Emrich, 2011, p. 88). He defines the culture shock in general as being

Adler and Adler (2008) have pointed out that the culture shock is a clash of situations and circumstances. The W-curve model developed by Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963, pp. 33–47) describes the different phases the repatriate has to deal with.

At the beginning of the return to the home country, the employee is highly satisfied (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 179). There is excitement about seeing family and friends again and to re-adopt old habits and contacts. Furthermore, the employee is proud of the successful termination of the international assignment and has high expectations about the future career development. After a while, the repatriate recognises that the situation at home has changed –as well as their own personality. This demands a readjustment by the employee which was not expected. A reverse culture shock often is the consequence (Hofstede et al., 2010, p. 386). Possible symptoms are e.g. solitude, physical stress reactions and anxiety (ibid.; Emrich, 2011, p. 91). The satisfaction level is very low at this point and it takes time until the employee recovers and finds a way to adapt to the old environment with the acquired competences including the situation at work as well as in the private surrounding (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 179). How long the different steps take depends on various aspects, for instance the duration of the international assignment, experiences with former stays abroad, the cultural differences between host and home culture, etc. (ibid., p. 180; Hofstede et al. 2010, p. 385).

 

 

Three-phase-model by Fritz

Another model about the employee’s reintegration process was developed by Fritz (1982, p. 39), who analyzed the situation before the departure and after the return of the employees. The result is an idealized model that summarizes characteristic behavior patterns during this process, which consists of the following three phases:

The “anticipation phase” is characterised by the expatriate’s imagination of the own return situation based on professional and personal experiences he or she has made. As a result, expectations are usually very high.

The second phase, called “accommodation phase”, comprises the confrontation of the imagined situation with reality. Expectations might not be fulfilled and the expatriate tries to explain those circumstances. As a consequence, expectations are adjusted as well as the own behavior based on explanatory models. Furthermore, four possibilities on how to react regarding the social integration are:

• Adjustment: Upcoming problems and contradictions are successfully solved through gained competences.
• Dissociation: The employee does not reintegrate but instead decides to go on another overseas assignment.
• Refusal: The repatriate refuses the home country’s culture.
• Dependency: The norms and values of the home country or parent company are completely taken over. (ibid., p. 46f)

The last phase, called the “adaption phase”, is shaped by the identification with the organization and the home country. This leads to the mutual acceptance and the social integration of the repatriate that means the inclusion of the repatriate on all levels will take place (ibid., p. 48). In contrast to the following model by Hirsch, no information is provided about how long each phase will last.

Process model by Hirsch

The third model was developed by Hirsch (2003, p. 423). As part of a reintegration seminar, he interviewed repatriates about their integration process. Compared to the model of Fritz, the first phase is based upon the opinions of the repatriates after their return to the home country.

Phase A “Naïve integration”: In the first phase, the employee is ready to come back home and to reintegrate into the old familiar environment. The phase is characterised by the willingness to readjust and the openness for the local circumstances. This is called the “naïve integration”, as it is only a superficial readjustment. It takes up to six months after the return until the more complicated second phase starts (ibid.).

Phase B “Reintegration shock”: Little problems, which appeared in the first phase, e.g. the incomprehension by colleagues or difficulties during the workday, gain in importance. This often results in an arrogant attitude of the repatriate towards the social environment including an aggressive prevailing mood. Disappointment and dissatisfaction dominate the feelings and it becomes difficult to lower one’s own expectations. Hirsch describes a disinterest for gained experiences from others as a high burden for the employee. The situation resembles the one of an outsider. If more problems arise, for example if the family has difficulties to reintegrate or the working atmosphere is not comfortable, the whole situation will become even worse. One solution is to go abroad again, but this option is rarely chosen according to Hirsch’s experiences. Instead, the employee moves on to phase C (ibid.).

Phase C “Real integration”: The repatriate has learned to adjust to the old environment and to match his or her own expectations with the real circumstances. Confidence has grown and a new behavioural pattern is recognisable. In general, upcoming difficulties can be handled, but it is also possible that the repatriate is occasionally falling back into phase B. This happens, for example, if a problem appears that is automatically compared to the situation in the host country, which then causes dissatisfaction with the current situation at home (ibid., p. 424). Hirsch underlines that this process model helps repatriates to better understand the whole situation and to identify their current position in the overall process. Difficulties can be overcome through the comprehension of what might happen in each phase and that it is a normal process, which takes time depending on the individual situation (ibid.).

9.8.6 Theoretical reintegration model by Jassawalla, Connolly andSlojkowski

Jassawalla, Connolly and Slojkowski analysed the difficulties during the reintegration process and developed a model of “effective repatriation”. The emphasis is on delivering analytical data for HR managers who are interested in finding the best solution for a specific situation. The study is based on literature review and an exploratory field study. However, only a small number of companies and managers was included and consequently, the findings cannot be generalised (Jassawalla et al., 2004, p. 39)

The holistic model focuses on key actions taken prior to departure, during the international assignment and upon repatriation. It is pointed out that companies, which manage the reintegration process successfully, plan most aspects of the employee’s return prior to their departure. This provides more certainty for the employee, since the whole international assignment process is often marked by uncertainty and anxiety. The results of the study showed that issues arising during the reintegration phase cannot be separated from the ones arising before the departure and during the stay abroad (ibid., p. 39).

Prior to departure:

Many international assignments are arranged on short notice and are therefore often poorly planned. This lack of planning leads to uncertainty for the employee concerning details about the stay abroad as well as future responsibilities. Furthermore, the link between the international assignment and the own career development is often not clearly understood (ibid.: p. 39).

Thus, three aspects were identified by experienced expatriates for improving the reintegration: task clarity, career counselling and formal policies for repatriation. Task clarity means for expatriates to know what to do abroad including time horizons and deadlines – besides what is expected and how it will be evaluated. This provides confidence for the process ahead. The money the company invests in career counselling gives information on the value the firm puts in its human resource capital. A high investment – and therefore a positive linkage between career counselling and the international assignment – is a motivational factor for the employee. Consequently, effective repatriation requires a highly qualitative career counselling including clarity about the reasons for being sent abroad, the benefits for the expatriate him- or herself as well as the company and finally, the career options upon return. If the contrary is the case, the expatriate will experience a high level of stress:

Formal policies for repatriation also seem to contribute to the assurance of the expatriate, as they include guidelines that the expatriate can relate to before, during and after the assignment. False expectations rarely come up as the company’s objectives are clarified, including the repatriation process (ibid.).

 

During their stay:

According to Jassawalla et al., a feeling of isolation and a missing connection to the parent company are two of the main problems expatriates are confronted with during their overseas stay. The following suggestions can help to optimise this situation:

Results of the study showed that the perception of support while on assignment has a high influence on the employees’ reintegration. If they felt well supported during their stay abroad, they were willing to reintegrate into the parent company due to their high degree of loyalty. On the contrary, if the expatriate feels only little support and interest in his or her smooth adjustment abroad, feelings of anxiety and diffusion will dominate. Consequently, the expatriate fears to have further problems when reintegrating back home. Therefore, Jassawalla, Connolly and Slojkowski recommend companies to show concern for the well-being of the expatriate and the accompanying family in terms of taking actions (ibid., p. 42).

To reduce the feeling of isolation, frequent communication between the parent company and the expatriate should take place. It is important not to only have contact to one person at home in order to avoid unilateral information. Moreover, maintaining a social network at work is seen as very beneficial as well as frequent visits to the parent company. Communication also demonstrates the importance of the international assignment to the expatriate and the company and therefore increases the motivation and morale. Furthermore, the company shows its intention to keep the expatriate updated about any changes at home and signals that the employee is still a part of the parent company (ibid.).

 

Upon their return:

When the expatriate returns to the home country after several years, some changes will have taken place in the company and the old environment and the expatriate might not know about them. Receiving support in readjusting to those circumstances contributes to a successful reintegration.

Many former expatriates assess the quality of interactions with sponsors as a very helpful mean in making reintegration a positive experience. In this case, a “sponsor” is defined as a person who has “more formal authority than the manager, who has a personal stake in the success of the foreign assignment, and who is vested in the career growth of the returning expatriate” (ibid., p. 43). In detail, further responsibilities include acting confidant and advocate, looking for adequate job positions, keeping the expatriate in the consciousness of key-decision makers in the parent company and making sure that the expatriate’s competences can be applied in the company after his or her return. Therefore, the provision of a sponsor for the expatriate is a good opportunity to support the reintegration in terms of a successful termination of the international assignment, the career development and the personal well-being of the expatriate (ibid).

Finally, the perception of support upon return can be strengthened by the company if expatriates are offered a job position signaling them that they are valued in the parent company as much as they were valued while being overseas. As expatriates firstly lose autonomy, attention, monetary benefits etc. when returning home, the company should provide adequate job propositions, where the acquired skills can be applied and which offer the possibility to transfer the gained knowledge. Furthermore, organising trainings, seminars and other measures to help the employee finding the way, are exemplary opportunities to establish a well planned reintegration process (ibid.).

The outcomes of investments in an efficient repatriation process are significant in terms of an

Jassawalla et al. also underline the high satisfaction among expatriates with their career development, a reduced uncertainty and greater loyalty to the company. It cannot be denied that those findings are only based on a small sample of companies and are intended to stimulate further research. Nonetheless, they provide a comprehensive view on the reintegration planning. The following chapter will provide more details concerning specific measures that can be applied before, during and after the international assignment for a successful completion.

9.8.7 Consequences of insufficient reintegration

The priorly discussed problems, which are associated with the employee’s return, put emphasis on the fact that solutions have to be developed in order to avoid negative impacts, as the consequences would affect the company the most.

First of all, if expatriates experience difficulties upon their return, they will become dissatisfied and leave the company in the worst case (Berthier/Roger, 2013, pp. 163f; Hirsch, 2003, p. 418). The result is a high loss of return on investment for the former company (Mesmer-Magnus /Viswesvaran, 2008, pp. 195ff). International assignments cost a large sum of money and the consequences are unfavorable if this investment does not bring the expected benefit (Berthier/Roger, 2013, p. 153; Horsch, 1995, pp. 104f). Nevertheless, the average attrition rate for international assignees amounted to 13 % in 2012 (Brookfield Global Relocation Trends Survey, 2012, p. 24). Among those who left, 22 % left while on assignment, 24 % within one year of repatriation, 26 % between the first and second year of repatriation and 28 % more than two years after repatriation (ibid.):

As a result, well qualified managers in the same company hear about those problems and are discouraged to go abroad (Horsch, 1995, pp. 104f). A high level of scepticism spreads and they become “tired” of going abroad (Dülfer/Jöstingmeier, 2008, p. 546). Colleagues who are currently abroad start to worry about their own return and want to extend their stay. Others are interested in a subsequent international assignment to avoid potential problems (Blom/Meier, 2004, pp. 179f).

The disinterest in the acquired competences might result in a “quit-stay”, which means that the employee has mentally quit the job but still stays on the job without being productive. This calls the current way of reintegrating expatriates into question: from utilising acquired skills to realising the high ROI (return on investment) in human capital (Jassawalla et al., 2004, p. 38).

9.8.8 Repatriation planning

Regarding the repatriation planning for the employee and the accompanying partner or family, successful actions have to be developed by the human resources department for the private and work-related surroundings (DGFP e.V., 2012, p. 123). The whole process of reintegration should be a dynamic interaction, which means that the company supports the employee in the daily life at work and at home, considers the repatriate’s experiences as enrichment and therefore, enables the employee to share and apply newly acquired competences and information (Hirsch, 2003, p. 425; Klemm/Popp 2006, pp. 205f).

These issues have to be initially considered in the context of the superior business strategy (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 190). Depending on the strategic orientation of the company, the extent and development of international assignments vary. If the companies are willing to invest money in the repatriation process, in the long run, they can benefit from this investment (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 192f).

Most of the successfully conducted reintegrations had been planned before the employee actually left for the international assignment (Weber et al., 2001, p. 138). This is in line with the findings by a study conducted by Deloitte (2008, pp. 23f), which states that 77 % of the participating companies start preparations for the repatriation before the start of the overseas stay. Regular home trips, a mentor from the parent company and an early determination of the return position at home are some aspects that help the employee to build more confidence in the company and to increase his or her motivation (ibid.). In the following, concrete examples will be given.

 

Support prior to return

To avoid difficulties upon return, several measures can be initiated in the professional environment as well as in private surroundings beforehand:

 

Mentoring system:

The role of a mentor is usually filled by a manager, who holds a higher position in the company’s hierarchy, e.g. from the senior management (Weber et al., 2001, p. 201). The person acts as a link between the parent company and the expatriate. He or she is a contact person who represents the interests of the expatriate during the absence including staffing, informs about important changes in the parent company, observes the performance abroad and finally supports the mentee during the reintegration phase (Blom/Meier, 2004, pp. 179f; Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 199; Weber et al. 2001, p. 201). 60 % of the companies offer a mentor from the home country according to the study by Deloitte (Deloitte & Touche 2008).

 

Preparation for potential reintegration difficulties:

If potential reintegration problems are discussed and solutions are offered, the repatriate will get a realistic view about the given circumstances. Moreover, changes in the parent company demand a certain degree of flexibility from the employee. If those issues addressed in an open way, the risks of a premature return will be reduced. (Fritz, 1982, pp. 93ff; Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 199).

 

Visits by HR managers in the host country:

Many expatriates are afraid of being forgotten by the parent company during their time abroad (Weber et al., 2001, pp. 137f). Regular visits by the responsible HR managers in the host country are an option to minimize this anxiety. They can use this opportunity to help the expatriate and the partner or family to build up realistic expectations about the repatriation process – including new information about expected changes within the company. A positive side effect is that HR managers get a better insight into the work and living conditions in the host country which might help them in the future to be fully aware of challenges that can be expected in this context (Fröhlich, 1987, p. 458).

 

Career planning:

How the career path can look like after the successful completion of the international assignment should be discussed beforehand (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, pp. 196ff). This includes basic facts about the duration of the stay abroad, the specific tasks, the performance measurement, the line manager’s role during the reintegration phase and the job position intended for the expatriate after return (Solomon, 2002, p. 23). If any changes take place during the assignment, e.g. the employee’s performance deteriorates abroad or the intended position is not available anymore, it has to be clearly communicated (ibid.; Andresen/Domsch, 2009, p. 462). This provides security for the employee and goes beyond the contractually agreed reintegration guarantee.

 

Information service:

To inform the expatriate on a regular basis about changes in the parent company and incidences will result in realistic expectations and less negative surprises (Adler/Adler, 1982, pp. 341–356). It also counteracts the anxiety of isolation and increases the feeling of involvement (Fritz, 1982, p. 184). The information transfer includes e.g. professional journals, company magazines and company-internal circulars that are sent abroad (Kühlmann/Stahl 1995, p. 202; Weber et al., 2001, p. 138).

 

Timely search for a return position:

Based on Kühlmann and Stahl, the HR department in the home country should start planning the reintegration process approximately one year before the end of the international assignment. This is a good time frame to give the expatriate the right information about what is going to happen after his or her return. At least six months before departure the expatriate should know which specific position will be offered. (1995, p. 203). This will avoid unnecessary worries by the employee regarding the uncertainty of the future career at home. A one-to-one conversation between a HR manager and the expatriate is the ideal possibility to discuss further details about the return including the future income and contractual terms (ibid.).

 

Annual trip home:

Regular trips home, at least once a year, have the benefit that the employee can use this time to visit the parent cmpany and hence keep personal contact with the former department, the mentor and other colleagues (Solomon, 2002, p. 23). The trip home also enables the accompanying family to keep contact with their family and friends. This reduces the risk of social isolation after return (Kühlmann/Stahl 1995, p. 203).

 

Relocation service:

Keeping the house or flat can ease the reintegration process, since no apartment search is necessary during the reintegration phase. Companies like Siemens offer here a special relocation service that takes care of all those activities necessary for a new start, including the search for a house or an apartment. The idea is quite simple: the repatriate and the accompanying family shall get the feeling of still having a “nest” at home, which can also increase the loyalty towards the company and the likelihood of returning to the parent company after the completion of the international assignment (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 204).

 

Support during reintegration phase

Following Kühlmann and Stahl (1995, pp. 204f), the subsequent table will give an overview on several support measures focusing on the assistance during the employee’s reintegration phase in the professional environment.

Regarding the private environment of the employee and the family, the following five suggestions have been made by Kühlmann and Stahl (1995, pp. 206f):

Support after return

After listing reintegration support measures that can be applied before and during the reintegration phase, there are now a few examples regarding the support after the employee’s return to be found in the following:

 

Beside the mentioned examples, there are some more studies (Blom/Meier, 2004; Weber, 2001; Martin/Anthony, 2006) that deal with problems and challenges caused by the reintegration process.

On the one hand, the success of those suggestions is not guaranteed due to insufficient research findings. On the other hand, it can be expected that a combination of some of those support measures is more likely to lead to a successful reintegration than only one measure. An important factor also is the timely planning. This is much more sufficient than short-term actions after the employee’s return (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 209).

Furthermore, it is important to see the responsibility not only on the company’s side but also on the employee’s side.

9.8.9 The employees’ view on reintegration

The success of a reintegration also depends on the employees’ efforts. Emrich (2011, p. 190) even sees most of the responsibility on the employees’ side. Companies can offer financial, family-oriented, psychological and career-related support, but the biggest contribution to the cultural reintegration has to be made by the employee him- or herself (ibid.). This includes e.g. maintaining contacts at home. Moreover, it is also the responsibility of the expatriate to actively quest for information about the situation in the parent company. Showing a certain flexibility regarding the return position is another positive contribution which will make a successful repatriation easier (Kühlmann/Stahl, 1995, p. 209). In summary, reintegration is also what the repatriate makes of it (Peltonen/Ladwig 2005, p. 342).

Beyond that, three main strategies that are used by repatriates to transition into the old environment can be identified. Those were identified by Adler/Gundersen (2008, pp. 292f) and are based on interviews with 200 Canadian repatriates from companies and state institutions:

 

Re-socialisation:

The employees think that their knowledge acquired abroad is not applicable at home and, therefore, subject themselves to the requirements of the life in the home country. They try to avoid attention and to behave like colleagues who have not been abroad. This implicates that no organisational and individual learning can take place.

 

Alienation:

The experienced way of life and working abroad is seen as more positive than the one at home. They have “gone native”. Consequently, the employees withdraw and do not apply their competences as they do not see any possibility. A personal isolation is the consequence and hence the company can scarcely profit from the employee’s international experiences.

 

Synthesis:

The employees try to find synergies between the foreign culture and their own culture. It is tried to apply positive experiences gained abroad to the way of life at home in finding new approaches. The proactive employees will bring high benefits for the company, as they are able to combine multiple cultures’ way of working, as long as the organisation is open for the employees’ ideas and contributions.

According to Kühlmann und Stahl, who criticise this model as not being comprehensive enough, the real return situations and consequently the transition strategies might even be more complex than explained above (1995, pp. 186f). It is difficult to say that repatriates will always choose one of the three strategies and react accordingly. Findings from stress research underline that several attempts are necessary to cope with stress situations and that the first attempt is not always successful (ibid.). Furthermore, the transition strategies are also influenced by the support from superiors, colleagues and friends, the potential offer for another international assignment and the employee’s own character (ibid.)

9.8.10 Repatriation checklist

The following timeline advises useful arrangements which should be made one year prior relocation to enable an accurate return to the home nation. This timeline can be arranged into four sections which can be seen below.