Innovation leadership often requires building bridges to span a cultural divide. As the world becomes more global, cultural awareness is required in order to influence others and bring us closer together. Cross-cultural engagement means dealing with possibilities and probabilities rather than certainties. While many societies have a relatively defined culture, the behavior of individuals is not entirely predictable, nor is it without moral, ethical, and cultural restrictions within a level of expectable norms, trends, and patterns. Societies shape and influence the core values and ethics of individuals to various degrees. Innovation leadership requires the intuitive identification of behavioral patterns and influences that prevail at the time, sub-culture, and location. Islam remains the major moral and cultural foundation and code of ethics in the Middle East.

Description

With the advent of mass Arab media, such as Al-Jazeera, many dialects of Arabic have faded and are trending toward a singular, but not social unity. The Arab culture has a predominant mindset focused on collectivism rather than individualism. While simplicity and commonality are used to explain a complex society and its leadership requirements, one would be foolhardy to stereotype or over-simplify cultural differences and the difficulty in overcoming or accommodating challenges. Most of a society will follow a social norm but individuals exist that influence their dynamic segment of society. The culture is stratified and position and status are extremely important. Arab culture remains fractious yet shares some degree of unanimity (Elbadawi, 2010).

Leadership in this dynamic culture is a deductive process that requires situational and cultural awareness, information gathering, and common sense interpretation to develop logical answers to leadership challenges within the complex context. Mental flexibility is required to perceive, think, and consider the perspective of a vastly different culture. The interpretation of a cultural response to make sense of a situation requires an understanding of that culture at an intuitive level. A leader must determine what can be done, what should be done, and what cannot be done within the cultural framework.

Tacit knowledge of a culture and its variations leads to situational awareness and perspective that is useful in evaluating a situation and influencing others through adaptive leadership (Al-Omari, 2008). The knowledge of commonalities and variations in regional religion, values, aspirations, frustrations, and history generate situational awareness and guides the actions of the innovation leader. The holistic consideration of another’s perspective can position a leader for meaningful advancement in achieving goals and objectives beyond one’s own culture and ambitions. Mutual objectives and common consensus while bestowing honor, status, and respect on the decision maker is a method of advancing goals as a leader.

The story

As I entered Afghanistan, a region with a vastly different culture, it was obvious that there was a great divide between my culture and Afghans. Even among villages, towns and camps of Afghans, there was immeasurable difference of perspective and cultural rift. There were defining tribal confederations and regional alignments as well as religious branching. Few that live in Afghanistan identify themselves as Afghan, instead, they identify with culture, religion, region, and family. The prevalent tribalism that remains in Afghanistan after millennia of the close living relationship was amazing. While being a loosely associated group from a common geological area, Afghans also had very strong internal ties and loyalties. The old adage: me against my brother, my brother and I against my uncle, and all of us against the foreigner, held some truth.

Rudyard Kipping, in The Ballad of East and West in 1895, wrote about his time in Afghanistan: “East is the East and the West is the West and never the twain shall meet.” At first, I was unaware of the vast cultural gap and did not know that I was going into a traditionally collective culture with deeply held values and beliefs different from my individualist culture. The Afghan culture remains diverse within it and is a fractious poly ethnic group for both inside and outside perspectives. Yet, they shared what they had with my small team and grew to accept us. Some of my closest relationships were built with people that I previously had little in common with.

What I had taken for granted as ethics and values were challenged. This high context culture was one that used collectivism to save face. The culture uses a complex and sophisticated communication system with a predisposition for implicit rather than explicit communication. My first encounters were in controlled environments where my culture was prevalent, but it was obvious that as time progressed that my exposure to new ideas, language, and culture would change my perspective and ideas, such as exchanging urgency for timing and diplomacy. Hospitality was never an option; it was required for any meaningful or purposeful discussion. Afghan cultures offered a stark contrast to western culture; the different fractured cultures were distinctly divided and characterized various villages. When meeting with the elders in an Afghan village for a Jirga, one must remember that time is abundant in Afghanistan; time for hospitality, meeting time, time for discussion, plenty of time to consider, thus a leader must display an abundance of patience. My time as an Advisor to Afghan security forces was a unique preparation for understanding experiences in Iraq.

The culture of Iraq was widely divided on religious fragmentation with loyalty to family and perhaps the tribe or tribal confederation (Polk, 2006). Understanding and identifying rifts were paramount to achieving a better relationship and progress toward mutually beneficial accomplishments. Iraqis identified as Sunni or Shiite and in part as Arab, Persian, or Kurd, rather than by family or clan. An effective leader is required to be aware of division and understand why there is a difference, its meaning and effect on perspective, and hence, decisions and actions. An innovation leader will bridge the differences, build efficacious solutions to persistent problems, and produce relationships to advance the interests of all parties involved.

When I volunteered for the assignment in Iraq, I spent some time selecting from open positions, of which, I selected Deputy Director of Interagency Coordination. However, the position I was coopted to fill was Advisor to the Iraqi Ground Forces, Commander, Commander of a Mobile Training Team, and the management of a translator and linguist pool. The team was functionally aligned at the national level between United States Ground Forces Command and Iraq Ground Forces. I was initially disappointed in the selection, as Advisor positions are perceived as dangerous. However, time would prove that the selection was in the best interest of everyone involved. I had no time to prepare for Iraqi cultural nuances. Therefore, I started reading books such as Understanding Iraq and Understanding Iran by William R. Polk and rereading the Shia Revival by Vali Nasr. My previous experience had been as an Advisor to Afghan Security Forces and the International Stabilization Force Afghanistan. Mentally, I needed to prepare myself for a cultural adaptation to gain trust and build mutual respect within diverse cultures and subcultures of Iraq. The appreciation for varied culture and perspective is a great asset in the facilitation of mutual understanding through patient and thoughtful communication. What often seems like a single homogenous culture is often a conglomeration of diverse subcultures and symbiotic and sometimes ancillary cultures working together in an orchestrated collective society as described by Dr. Jehad Al-Omari in his book Understanding the Arab Culture. Intellectual awareness generates meaningful situational awareness and sensitivity to cultural cues. Keen observation and situational awareness are required to gain a meaningful understanding of the circumstances and interrelationships of a dynamic society. As one is unable to gather complete information on the dynamics of a new culture, initial leadership is more a situation of general observations on a macro scale with some nuances key to anticipating change and response.

Middle Eastern society is a high context culture with a culture of collective decision-making. The unifying elements of the Arab culture include a language that is shared within a religion. Since leadership is the art of influencing others, a profound vicarious empathy toward this fractural culture is required in order to generate a dispassionate perspective and understanding that is a meaningful situational interpretation. The culture is held together by a common macro religion and separated by ideology, interpretation of cultural nuance, regional affiliation, and ethnic background. Intuitive leadership is difficult in such a vivacious environment that has a much different cultural context.

The basis for understanding leadership is developed during the important task of identifying the competencies and meta-competencies that comprise leadership and more specifically situational leadership. For this discussion, we will use the seven meta-competencies provided to us by Tubbs (2006). Tubbs provides a discussion matrix about leadership that includes: understanding the big picture, teamwork and followership, attitude, leadership, communication, innovative and creative thought, leading change. In addition to the Tubbs meta-competencies, we will consider Middle Eastern cultural complexity in conjunction with the influence of leadership (Bates, 2001). The most notable cultural difference in the region is the division between Sunni and Shiite as outlined by Vali Nasr, who provides us with invaluable insight into the general underlying challenges of the region. Additionally, there are unique and often proud differences in the identity of ethnic groups such as Egyptians, Turks, Arabs, and Persians, to name a few. Other areas in the Middle East are poly-cultural such as Afghanistan, North Africa, and Pakistan. Leadership requires situational awareness and understanding, which allows varied leadership to meet the demands generated by the circumstances (House, 2004).

Interpersonal mutual confidence, respect, and conviction is required before a working relationship of significance can be the basis for action and teamwork. The Arab culture has a significant basis in personal relationship and trust and status. Greeting everyone based on status, starting with the leaders, elders, and seniors is important. Some common cultural courtesies are speaking only in response to direct questions and leaving specific discussion until after refreshments and small talk. Particularly, one should inquire about how life events are going for others. Mutual regard, common understanding, and common goals are required for a progressive working relationship. Attitudes set the tone for overcoming adversity and establishing a common vision and purposes. As situations change there is an expectation that the terms of an agreement or contract will be renegotiated to accommodate change and remain inclusive of common purpose. Attitude is an important issue to keep in mind as a leader. Leading means influencing, encouraging, nurturing relationships and making mutually beneficial advancements to a common objective; a positive, knowledgeable and respectful attitude will advance one’s causes greatly and gain the admiration and respect of others.

Situational awareness and sensitivity with attention to interpersonal nuance and a higher level of patience are required in the Arab culture as opposed to western society. It is common in Arab culture to start a meeting with tea and discussions about one’s health and family. If the principle is ready to discuss salient matters, he will bring up the topic for discussion when and if he feels it is appropriate. Some aspects of cognition, behavior, or affect may be particularly relevant in a specific country or region; evidence suggests that a core set of competencies enables adaptation to any culture (Hammer, 1987). This discussion reviews previous research on the variables of cross-cultural competence and intercultural effectiveness that contribute to desired outcomes.

The difference between western social norms of communication and interpersonal interaction in the Middle East is that communication is often not direct, but instead conveyed through body language and social actions. The timing of communication is essential due to cultural sensitivity. Group dynamics differ greatly from American preferences for the presentation of information and information exchange. There is a vast difference in the information that can be presented in a group as opposed to what can be discussed in private. T.E Lawrence noted the importance of using words sparingly in a group, but private opinions should be clearly and knowledgably voiced as well as clearly and diligently articulated. There is a greater sense of openness in a closed forum with a Middle East decision-maker (Lawrence, 2011b). Often, I would not participate in open forum discussion unless called upon to provide the position of those I represented or information that would clarify the discussion. My contribution was succinct and concise and I provided additional pertinent information upon request. The group looked to me as the source of information and understanding of outside positions and actions. I had become the honest broker. Infrequently, the group would ask what my thoughts were pertaining to a specific situation or individual; during such time times I used very few words, but conveyed the tone and accurate situational assessment even if it was not going to be well received.

If a Middle Eastern decision-maker fully buys into an idea, he takes ownership of the innovation. It is most important to support the idea agreed upon, as anything less would be a personal affront to the principle. As a personal and individual relationship is built, so was professional confidence and the ability to determine what could be accomplished and what could not be accomplished. One cannot expect to get all the concessions and achieve a mutual interest and participation in all actions. However, with the right leadership philosophies focused on the appropriate audience, a greater level of accomplishment is possible. It is better in a private setting to use candor and frank discussion while at the same time demonstrating intellectual command of the facts, perceptive flexibility, empathy, and solid situational awareness (Al-Omari, 2008). Leadership under difficult circumstances with a culture that is not similar to one’s life experiences is an art of building a bridge to greater understanding, closer relations, and mutual trust and respect (Grisham, 2008).

Discussion

Cultural awareness is the study of cultural complexity and understanding. Ethical and effective leadership involves leading in a manner that respects the culture and dignity of others (Ciulla, 2014). As leaders are by nature in a position of social power, ethical leadership focuses on how leaders use ethical power in the decisions they make, actions they engage in, and ways they influence others (Gini, 1997). There are six key attributes that appear in ethical leadership: character and integrity, ethical awareness, community/people-orientation, motivating, encouraging and empowering, and managing ethical accountability (Resick, 2006). Middle Eastern priorities are contrasted much differently than other worldviews based on religious origins and may be in stark contrast to western ideals. The appropriate approach is based on understanding cultural perspectives and societal basis. Ethics and values are based on Islamic values and are deeply rooted in the cultural values of societies in the Middle Eastern culture just as Confucian values are pervasive throughout societies in the Confucian Asian cluster. When combined, these dimensions reflect leading in a manner that is respectful of the rights and dignity of others, which is, ethical leadership (Resick, 2006).

What separates a Middle Eastern culture into diverse segments and what binds the same culture together is a conglomeration of familial, tribal, religious, and regional norms. Considerate and diligent appreciative development of a situation determines the appropriate bridging strategies and advancement of relationships. Understanding the big picture, maintaining a positive attitude, and meaningful and purposeful communication often requires innovation and creative leadership (Tubbs, 2006). Situational awareness concerning culture is a driver for determining perspective, the origin of opinion, and belief. The deep meaningful development of how a high context culture is different and how to alter one’s behavior and approach to it will greatly increase the level of success (Al-Omari, 2008).

What divides a culture is what matters in developing a relationship and appropriate cultural engagement. Cultural sub-division and belief can be the cause of great adamancy or radicalism for others to follow and demand submission. General culture is a fine starting point, but often we find adamant individuals in the subculture that are not present in the mainstream culture (Wardi, 2008). An example is a great divide between Kurdish culture and Shiite beliefs. While much animosity exists between the two entities, it was a puzzling observation that Shiite officials would make a deliberate effort to vacation in and even own houses in the Kurdish area of Iraq. At times, it seems that the animosity was predominantly verbal, yet, when the Kurds would try to further separate themselves from Iraq, it was met with visceral negative reaction. An interesting side note is that many that voiced a negative reaction to the Kurds also maintained vacation homes in the area because it was safer than other regions in Iraq. Understanding cultural nuances big and small as well as the level of conviction is sometimes one of the most important matters of innovation leadership in culture. It provides the basis of perspective, morals, and ethics of individuals and groups.

T.E. Lawrence gives us a historical basis for more current decision-making frameworks for this particular subculture. The leader’s circumstances and situation dictated how he or she was to approach a situation within the cultural context. The context and principle of the 27 Articles remain valid today. The culture has remained similar and primarily intact over time (Lawrence, 2011b). Building alliances within the framework of existing culture is critical in influencing and leading. A leader is required to forge mutual relationships of trust and interest to influence those with a common interest. Working to develop a rapport to gain trust and acceptance in another culture that is at a different level of context and communication complexity is required to influence as well as to establish working relationships close enough to the primary leader to be addressed as an important member of the family, at times, even closer than some of the primary leader’s own sons (Lawrence, 2011a).

Gaining the confidence of others, through innovation leadership and strong relationships generates a leadership role that is supported as part of a teamwork, but, in the Arab culture, is best done through good followership and support of the decision maker. Working with other cultures to gain trust, build respect, advance mutual projects and develop working relationships is supported by innovation leadership. The innovation is the bridging of cultures in such a manner as to demonstrate the credibility of a close advisor. The ability to frame actions in a mutually beneficial and culturally sensitive manner to gain the optimal potential allowed by the situation and circumstances is the goal (Kellerman, 1988).

Summary

This chapter offers a review of flexibility and adaptability when generating innovation in a multi-cultural context. Subtle divides can be considered unacceptable rifts when friction between contiguous cultures can heat up. It is important to know and understand the flashpoints in a poly-cultural environment. Again, situational awareness and cultural acceptance is paramount to developing influence. One need not take sides, but instead focus should be placed on the awareness that there are dissimilarities, what and where they are, and the ability to bridge the differences. The example used in this chapter is the various Muslim cultures found in the Middle East (Bueno, 2004).

The largest divide is between Sunni and Shiite theologies that manifest in the perspectives of the faithful. Each religious bifurcation has a certain view of themselves, the world, leadership, and social approach. As the world becomes more global, there are many fractures in society and social differences. These nuances both subtle and obvious generate a fluid matrix for innovation leadership based on situation and circumstance. Cultural situational awareness was the basis for influencing others, generating respect, and establishing mutual interests in dancing actions. The world may always have a division between and within societal elements, the extent of which can be bridged by innovation leadership. It is important to achieve awareness and understanding of these differing sentiments and use the difference to generate a positive perspective outcome for stakeholders through innovation and creativity. Exceptional communication and understanding based on positive attitude, leadership, a desire to lead change, and teamwork produces extraordinary results. One must remain flexible and agile in thought and action with sensitivity toward a host culture and its nuances. The ability to work between cultural divides is often determined by the ability a leader has to generate situational awareness and adapt to various situations and circumstances generated by this differentiation (Wunderle, 2006).

References

Al-Omari, J, 2008, Understanding the Arab Culture: A Practical Cross-Cultural Guide to Working in the Arab World, Hachette, New York.

Bates, DG and Rassam, A, 2001, Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Bueno, CM and Tubbs, SL, 2004, ‘Identifying global leadership competencies: An exploratory study’, Journal of American Academy of Business, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 80–87.

Ciulla, JB, 2014, Ethics, the Heart of Leadership. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA.

Elbadawi, I and Makdisi, S, 2010, Democracy in the Arab World: Explaining the Deficit. Routledge, London.

Gini, A, 1997, ‘Moral leadership and business ethics’, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 64–81.

Grisham, T and Walker, DH, 2008, ‘Cross-cultural leadership’, International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 439–445.

Hammer, MR, 1987, ‘Behavioral dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: A replication and extension’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 65–88.

House, RJ, Hanges, PJ, Javidan, M, Dorfman, PW and Gupta, V, 2004, Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe Study of 62 Societies. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Kellerman, B and Rubin, JZ, 1988, Leadership and Negotiation in the Middle East. Praeger Publishers, Santa Barbara, CA.

Lawrence, TE, 2011a, Evolution of a Revolt. Praetorian Press, Seattle, WA.

Lawrence, TE, 2011b, Twenty-Seven Articles. Praetorian Press, Seattle, WA.

Lawrence, TE and Calder, A, 1997, Seven Pillars of Wisdom. Wordsworth Editions, Ware, UK.

Nasr, V, 2007, Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future. W.W. Norton & Company, New York.

Polk, WR, 2006, Understanding Iraq: A Whistlestop Tour from Ancient Babylon to Occupied Baghdad. IB Tauris, New York.

Polk, WR, 2009, Understanding Iran: Everything You Need to Know, from Persia to the Islamic Republic, from Cyrus to Ahmadinejad. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.

Resick, CJ, Hanges, PJ, Dickson, MW and Mitchelson, JK, 2006, ‘A cross-cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership’, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 345–359.

Tubbs, SL and Schulz, E, 2006, ‘Exploring a taxonomy of global leadership competencies and meta-competencies’, Journal of American Academy of Business, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 29–34.

Wardi, A, 2008, Understanding Iraq: Society, Culture, and Personality. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewistown, NY.

Wunderle, WD, 2006, Through the Lens of Cultural Awareness: A Primer for the United States Armed Forces Deploying in Arab and Middle Eastern Countries. Government Printing Office, Washington DC.