13

LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

‘Smell the cheese often so you know when it is getting old’.
‘The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese’.
‘Movement in a new direction helps you find new cheese’.

 

—Who Moved My Cheese, a business fable by Spencer Johnson

These are some of the lessons that two mice in the quest of cheese have for us in life. Read them in the organizational context and what do they mean? ‘Smell the cheese often so you know when it is getting old’—assess your knowledge and your skills to check whether they are out of times. ‘The quicker you let go of old cheese, the sooner you find new cheese’—the sooner you unlearn, the quicker will be your learning. ‘Movement in a new direction helps you find new cheese’—innovating and looking beyond the obvious are key to learning. Similar to the mice in the book, organizations are faced with only one constant and that is change and the only key to mastering change is by learning. Alvin Toffler had many years ago remarked ‘The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn’.

13.1 UNDERSTANDING, LEARNING, TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

We all know what human resource management (HRM) is and how to make it strategic to the business interests of the organizations. An important element of this is to include processes in such a way that all individuals and teams are equipped with the skills, knowledge and competencies they require to undertake current and future tasks required by the organization. All these processes are a part of what is known as HR development (HRD).

The key elements of HRD are learning, training, development and education. Often these words are used interchangeably, but it is worth pondering over the difference in each of these terms and how they contribute to the development of human resources in an organization.

13.1.1 Education

It is the act or the experience which forms the knowledge base that underpins any other activities that the individual may engage in at a later stage. The formative effect of education is on the mind, character as well as on physical activity. This is the reason why there are minimum qualification requirements for jobs, and interviewers are also interested in extracurricular activities that the candidate has pursued.

13.1.2 Learning

It is the relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience. The permanent change in behaviour may be due to the acquisition of new knowledge or the modification of existing knowledge, behaviours, skills, values or preferences.

13.1.3 Development

Skills and abilities get enhanced through the growth of individuals, and this results in education and learning. This may take place through either conscious or unconscious learning. Development, on the other hand, involves coaching, mentoring and other related aspects.

13.1.4 Training

Training has a narrower focus than education and learning. It tends to concentrate on skill development. After training, one is clear about what people are to accomplish once it is over.

Learning and development can be defined as a collective progress which aids in the organizational process through facilitation, collaborative and expert stimulation and in-depth knowledge which helps in supporting business goals and thereby leads to developing the employee potential and respect.

 

13.2 LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

You have read in Chapter 2 that learning and development strategy is all about providing a learning environment to employees within the organization to develop and grow the organization. A pertinent question here would be whether individual learning ensures organizational learning. Consider a cricket team. More often than not each individual in the team has a more or less cut-out role—batsman (opening or middle order), bowler (fast, medium pacer or spinner), wicket keeper and so on and so forth. Imagine if all learnt to be excellent players in their own right would it ensure the success of the team. Obviously no! Therein lies the essence of organizational learning vs individual learning. Therefore, learning strategies of an organization need to look at both levels of learning in an organization to ensure the success of the enterprise.

 

 

Organizational learning can be described as continuous learning systems. It has been defined by Marsick (1994) as a process of ‘coordinated systems change, with mechanisms built in for individuals and groups to access, build and use organizational memory, structure and culture to develop long term organizational capacity’

Individual learning can be described as interventions and activities which are intended to improve the knowledge and skills of the individual learner. The individual learning strategy should cover how learning needs will be identified, the role of personal development, planning, self-managed learning and the support that should be provided in the form of guidance, coaching and mentoring to meet the particular learning needs of the individual.

 

Jack Welch in his last letter to the shareholder in the Annual Report of GE admitted to have finally realized what made GE grow the way it did—that it was a learning organization!

 

13.2.1 What Is a Learning Organization?

The concept of a ‘learning organization’ has been around for many years, but it came to notice especially after Peter Senge wrote The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. According to David Garvin, a learning organization is one which creates, acquires, interprets, transfers and retains knowledge and acts by purposely modifying its behaviour to respond to the new knowledge and insights.

Tata Steel can be termed to be truly a learning organization. In 2003, it launched a process called ‘Aspire’ which was about articulating aspirations even if they were beyond capability (create, acquire and interpret). It was then followed by ‘Aspire Knowledge Manthan’ which meant churning which represents the desire to increase the flow of knowledge throughout, and especially across, the organization (transfer). Various programmes such as MASS (Manthan ab shopfloor se, which means Manthan from the shop-floor level) and knowledge quizzes are held to assimilate this knowledge (retain knowledge). Various improvement programmes are run in response to the acquired knowledge, and this has shown results in the growth of the organization (modified behaviour).

13.2.2 Why Is It Important to Be a Learning Organization?

The environment in which companies are operating is fast changing. The world is now flat and smaller, and industry boundaries have come crashing down. Regulated businesses are getting deregulated and innovative business models are cropping up one after the other. Earlier companies relied on unique products, services or processes, but in the new world, all these can be copied. Therefore, the only way that an organization can sustain competitive advantage is if its rate of learning is greater than the rate of change outside the world.

13.2.3 What Does It Take for an Organization to Be a Learning Organization?

A learning organization stands on three pillars and they are (refer to the earlier example on Tata Steel):

1. Learning processes: Without proper processes in place, building a learning organization can only live as a dream. Processes have to be built for experimentation, sharing knowledge and best practices, transferring it and learning from past experience. ‘Aspire’, ‘Knowledge Manthan’, MASS and knowledge debates are processes that have been laid out to facilitate learning.
2. Learning environment: It is an environment/climate that supports and encourages learning, tolerates errors and offers the psychological safety of admitting mistakes, asking uncomfortable questions or even flooring crazy ideas. Consider this: MASS is a process that involves shop floor employees in a common knowledge-sharing platform. Employees from various departments participate, discuss and share their knowledge on a specified theme (communicated in advance) either through ‘story-telling’ method or in a workshop mode. Would this be possible if the environment was not non-threatening to ask questions discussing issues by the shop-floor workers?
3. Leadership that fosters and inspires the learning environment: It is the leadership that does not hesitate to ask questions, show curiosity, admit when things go wrong and acknowledge uncertainty. A significant part of the success of the programme in Tata Steel was the leadership support it received. Dr. Mukherjee, Deputy Managing Director (steel), launched the programme and has remained an active supporter throughout its evolution.

13.3 LEARNING THEORIES

So far we have looked at the macro picture of learning in an organization, but learning has to start with the individual. How do individuals learn? What is the process of learning? Does everyone learn the same way and at the same pace or do people have different learning styles? Before we move on to discussing various components of the learning process, it is important to answer these questions.

Let us briefly trace through what experts have propounded over the last so many years and what is the latest belief about learning. (You must have covered the first three theories in your organizational behaviour class.)

13.3.1 The Theory of Classical Conditioning

This theory was formulated by Ian Pavlov (1927). He believed that people could be conditioned to behave in a certain way. For example, soldiers are conditioned to move forward under fire, even when their ‘instinct’ is to take cover or run away. Hence, the need for armies all over the world is to spend considerable time and effort on basic training.

13.3.2 The Theory of Operant Condition

B. F. Skinner (1953) added to this theory by propounding in his theory that learning in people could be affected by reinforcement—positive, negative or intermittent. For example, a new employee is given a badge for asking the best question during the induction training.

13.3.3 The Social Learning Theory

This theory was formulated by Albert Bandura (1962) and it propounded that people learn by watching others behave in a social situation and then imitate or model their behaviour after that person. For example, many organizations make it essential for an employee to have worked as the executive assistant to the CEO before taking over the position of a senior role.

The latest in the learning theory space is now what is known as the cogntive learning process, which views learning as a sequence that processes information at three stages—perception stage which gives attention to absorbing from the environment, a second mentally active stage which makes sense of the information and finally a restructuring and a storage phase. Most popular among these is the Kolb's learning cycle.

 

13.3.4 Kolb's Learning Cycle

David Kolb theorized that four combinations of perceiving (the way we feel about a task, feeling or thinking) and processing (the way we learn a task, watching or doing it) determine four learning styles that make up a learning cycle. According to Kolb, the learning cycle involves four processes that must be present for learning to occur. It is best understood seeing Table 13.1 and Figure 13.1.

• Diverging (concrete, reflective): Emphasizes the innovative and imaginative approaches of doing things. Views concrete situations from many perspectives and adapts by observation rather than by action. Interested in people and tends to be feeling-oriented. Likes such activities as cooperative groups and brainstorming.
• Assimilating (abstract, reflective): Pulls a number of different observations and thoughts into an integrated whole. Likes to reason inductively and create models and theories. Likes to design projects and experiments.
• Converging (abstract, active): Emphasizes the practical application of ideas and solving problems. Likes decision-making, problem-solving and the practicable application of ideas. Prefers technical problems over interpersonal issues.
• Accommodating (concrete, active): Uses trial-and-error method rather than thought and reflection. Good at adapting to changing circumstances. Solves problems in an intuitive and trial-and-error manner, such as discovery learning. Also tends to be at ease with people.

Figure 13.1 Kolb's learning cycle

 

 

Table 13.1 Kolb's learning styles

	Doing (Active Experimentation [AE])	Watching (Reflective Observation [RO])
Feeling (Concrete Experience [CE])	■ Accomodating (CE/AE)	■ Diverging (CE/RO)
Thinking (Abstract Conceptualization [AC])	■ Converging (AC/AE)	■ Assimilating (AC/RO)

These styles of learning are a function of the personality of the learner. For example, it has been found that extroverts and introverts have different processes and styles for learning. What emerges from this discussion is the fact that organizations need to have learning and development processes to suit the myriad learning styles that people have in an organization.

 

13.4 TRAINING PROCESS

Through what you have read about Tata Steel's learning initiative and the learning theories it must be amply clear to you that learning per se is not a linear process and it takes many parallel processes to facilitate learning. One of the most frequently used processes is that of ‘training’. While learning to be a good leader cannot be achieved through training programmes only, it is possible to train someone to be a an empathetic customer care executive. So how exactly would you define training? Training may be defined as ‘a planned programme designed to improve performance and to bring about measurable changes in knowledge, skills, attitude (KSA) and social behaviour of employees for doing a particular job’.

 

Figure 13.2 Training process

 

Much has been said, written and also done in the area of training budgets across the world and in India. This is evident from the kind of spend which is done under the head training. However, if you ask a manager in an organization, you would find that the results of the training are never found to commensurate with the kind of effort which is made in this area. What could be wrong? It is not the concept of training which is at fault—more often than not it is the fault of the entire training management process. Training managers often get taken in by fads losing their focus on what the deliverable of the training should be. The Outbound Management Development Programme (OMDP) is one such fad which has caught up in India. Often, the training department to boost its failing popularity organizes OMDP. More often than not the OMDP is not followed by any exercise to evaluate internalization of lessons learnt. For such reasons, it is very important to understand that management of the training process is extremely important and that doing any of the steps incorrectly will cost not only money but also precious executive time and resources.

The training process consists of four important parts and they are: (1) training need assessment (TNA), (2) training content, (3) training delivery and (4) evaluation of training and development (Figure 13.2).

 

13.5 TRAINING NEED ASSESSMENT (TNA)

One of the reasons why training does not deliver the desired effect is that it does not suit the needs of the organization. Although this seems a straightforward and simple idea, not much evidence is present to support it. This may be due to lack of information on how a TNA should be done, management scepticism about spending time and money on the effort, poor planning or no time to do a TNA or the urge to follow prevalent training fads. For these reasons traditionally, the ‘felt’ needs approach has been applied which simply asks employees to list the training they desire. Although these ‘felt’ training needs might boost the morale, it is unlikely that they yield results at the business level, because employees may report the training they want and it may differ from the training they really need. Although self-assessment of training need involves the risk of not identifying the actual need, it should be noted that the assessment by others does not guarantee that actual needs are identified better. Therefore, a systematic approach to TNA is required for training to be effective.

An organization adopting a systematic approach to training and development will usually go about defining its needs for training in accordance with a well-organized process. Such a process will entail looking at training needs from a number of different perspectives:

• Organization: The organizational analysis consists of considering how training can help to attain organizational goals and where in the organization training is needed.
• Task: The task analysis focuses on what the employee must learn in order to perform well in the job, and thus, what the training should cover.
• Person: Person analysis identifies who, in the organization, will need training and for what purpose.

However, it is not essential that every year the organization looks at doing a training need analysis at all levels. That will depend on the circumstances at that point in time. For example, if there is an internal and external branding of the organization which is going through a change then the response from training for that has to be at the corporate level.

 

13.5.1 Organizational Analysis

Organizational analysis is an examination of the internal and external environment of the organization, its human resources and the strategic objectives of the organization to identify areas within the organization where training emphasis should be laid.

Strategic initiatives might require training at an organizational level. Take the example of the Aditya Birla Group which has been acquiring companies across the world. The employees have to, therefore, work with people across different cultures. The group has come to the conclusion that having a ‘global mindset’ is of prime importance. The leadership team participated in a workshop on what a global mindset means which was conducted by a professor from an Ivy League business school. The middle and senior management was identified for language courses and cross-cultural workshops.

Similarly, there are some attributes that are focused across the entire organization—for example, quality, health safety security and environment (HSSE), innovation, customer delight etc. An organization with an identified HSSE imperative will probably have evacuation drills across all facilities of the organization as a matter of routine. Any organization doing business in the United States or a US MNC's Indian office has to have continuous training and education of its employees to ensure Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) compliance.

Organizational analysis also includes a careful study of data on competencies of human resources to meet current as well as future requirements of the business. This might mean a careful study of production records, voluntary and involuntary attrition, marketing statistics, performance trends and succession planning to identify areas where training needs to emphasize learning.

 

13.5.2 Task Analysis

As mentioned previously, a gap in the performance, uncovered through the comparison of an organization's objectives with the current situation, can draw attention to certain jobs and positions within the company where training might be necessary. For example, an increase in the complaints or decrease in satisfaction level of air passengers will point out the jobs (check-in, baggage handling, in-flight passenger service etc.) where training needs to be focused. A task analysis dissects a job into its different task components and draws conclusion about KSA (knowledge, skill and ability) and behaviour needed to perform the job successfully in the present and also in the future. Now that we understand what task analysis is, the obvious question is how should it be done? There is no one way to do it correctly; therefore, depending on the job and the situation, one can use a combination of methods. Interviews with subject matter experts (SME) such as employees familiar with the job and their managers, observations, questionnaires to job holders, review of manuals and also attempting to do the job are some of the methods.

Task analysis is less effective at managerial levels compared to lower levels as it is quite detail oriented. Competency assessment is one of the methods for TNA, as most jobs, nowadays, are knowledge intensive; a combination of knowledge, skills and attitude is what mirrors the behaviour on the job front which can be observed, measured and of course evaluated. Gaps can be ascertained by doing a competency assessment of employees doing the job, though most organizations have a competency framework where the expected levels of competency for different positions and jobs are nevertheless identified.

 

13.5.3 Person Analysis

The individual training needs of employees is one of its objectives. This becomes meaningful when the performance and current proficiency levels of the employees doing the tasks are known. Every employee performs differently for different tasks, as their KSA profile, their education and work experience background etc. is different too. This should be done in a manner which considers the performance of the employee, and thereby it triggers exactly which KSA area must be developed in the employee, in order, to correct the situation. This is a very sensitive part of the TNA process as it deals with substandard performance and ineffective behaviour at an individual level. It could increase its chances of being accepted if it is done constructively and has the involvement of the employee too.

Another important factor to note is that gaps in performance are always not indicative of a skill gap. An important lesson of organizational behaviour is that the performance of employees is a function of not only their ability but also their motivation. Often trainers find it suitable to send an employee for a skill development workshop while the actual requirement may be simple recognition of efforts by the manager to motivate them to use their skill.

13.6 TRAINING CONTENT

13.6.1 Objectives of Training

Having identified the learning/training needs as described in the section above, these have to be translated into specific outcomes designed to meet those needs. In other words, the objectives need to be written. The terms ‘aims’ and ‘objectives’ are used interchangeably, but in practice there is a clear and important difference. An aim indicates or provides a general statement of intent. On the other hand, objectives spell out precisely how this is to be achieved.

 

Here is an example:

Sales training in an IT solutions company:

Aim: How to sell solutions that build stronger, more profitable customer relationships.

Objectives:

• To recognize and understand principles and techniques required for building long term and mutually beneficial client relationships.
• To learn to clearly differentiate oneself based on value.
• To learn to act in a more consultative way, aligning with customer's buying process and business goals.
• To learn to present solutions, guide decisions, manage resistance and close the sale.

A good-quality objective also makes evaluation of the training programme easy.

13.6.2 Training Methods

When we are talking about training methods, we are essentially discussing the means by which we intend to communicate information, ideas, skills, attitudes and feelings to learners. Thus, methods are a very crucial element in a trainer's success. It is common to find methods categorized according to whether they are employed on-the-job or off-the-job situations. However, this approach does not make it easy to distinguish the appropriateness of methods for communicating knowledge, rather than develop skills or attitudes. We shall look at training methods in terms of their relevance to particular groups of learning objectives. However, before we get there, it is worthwhile to understand and develop appreciation for the entire universal set of training methods available to us. From these, based on the learning objectives one can pick and choose to design a training programme accordingly.

 

Lecture Method

The dictionary describes a lecture as an exposition of a given subject delivered before an audience or a class, used for the purpose of instruction. It is a quick and simple way to present information to a large audience. However, lectures are always looked upon as boring and ineffective. This may be because lectures do not involve the participant and actually ignore their experience and diversity in learning styles. Moreover, it is very difficult to hold the attention of the audience for a long span of time. However, there are times when a lecture seems to be the most optimal method of training, and a lot depends on the facilitator too. On such occasions, certain tactics can make a lecture interesting and take the potential boredom away. Some of the things that can enhance the engagement of the audience are as follows:

• An activity to follow the lecture—it could be a simple pen-and-paper quiz with an attractive prize.
• Active participation of the audience to make it conversational.
• An attractive visual support in the form of PowerPoint slides. A handout with a key word outline of the presentation with enough room to make notes.
• Well-placed humour.

Case Method

In this method, an account of a real or fictional situation is given, and students are asked to suggest answers to a number of practical and theoretical issues raised by the account. The method is useful for giving participants an opportunity to experience problem-solving in a relevant context. The most talked about instance of usage of the case method is the Harvard Business School. It is worthwhile to know how the method is used to internalize learning in the true sense. The school gives the Case Study to the students in advance—the students are supposed to read the case by placing themselves in the role of the protagonist, the decision-maker as they read the case. They are expected to study the case, reflect on it, discuss it with their peers, consider the pros and cons and then arrive at a decision or analyse the same. In the class, the professor questions and guides the discussion by probing for the underlying issues and comparing and contrasting different alternatives. Often, there are no decisions that are right or wrong. Learning happens by way of the scores of different perspectives that are shared by fellow students in class. Students say that it provides a risk-free environment to practice decision-making and is the best way to internalize complex concepts and realities of business.

 

Syndicate Method

The syndicate method of learning is quite similar to the case method of learning except that in this method there are multiple groups or syndicates as against one large group. In this, the learning audience may be split into five to six groups of 10–12 people each. The formation of the groups is done in a way that they are as diverse in their experience as possible to enhance the potential of mutual learning. There is one trainer who acts as the chairman of the group and there is a co-trainer assigned to each group to facilitate the learning experience. The groups are given assignments, made up before hand to be submitted within a specified time. The task is assigned in the form of a ‘Brief’, a document prepared by the experts with meticulous care. Lecturettes by experts are also arranged to supplement the study. Each group has to select a leader and a secretary and with each task the position is taken on by different members of the group. The leader is expected to lead the discussion to make it as threadbare and rich as possible—the secretary is supposed to record the proceedings of the group. The leader then uses these notes to present the results to the rest of the groups. Often, the report prepared and submitted by a group is circulated among the members of the other groups for comparative study and critical evaluation. The leader of the group is required to present the views of the group in the joint session and justify the group's view in case of criticism or questions.

 

Programmed Learning

Programmed instruction has gained a lot of importance in the last decade. It includes learning machines, auto instruction, automatic instruction and programmed learning. This is a system of teaching and learning which has been applied to training and education now. In this, the pre-established subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps and carefully organized into a logical sequence in which it can be learned readily by the students. Each step builds upon the previous one. The basic purpose of this method is to give sufficient information to the learners and then test their authority on that before moving ahead. This ensures full participation by the trainee and immediate feedback to them too. With the advent of technology, it has become easy to store information and lessons, and trainees can work at their own pace to suit their learning appetite. Programmed instruction forms the basis for the design of many e-learning programmes now.

 

Business Games

These are classroom exercises where usually teams compete against one another. The design of the games is such that it represents real-life conditions. Under this method, trainees learn to work in a team in a simulated business environment.

 

Role Plays

A role play is used for training purposes; it is a simulation in which trainees are required to act out the role of an individual in a situation or in circumstances that are relevant to the trainee. The scenario can be an imaginary one or a real situation that the trainee is shortly to face. It provides participation, involvement and opportunity for action learning. Participants act out or practice real-life situations in a protected environment. Their behaviour, speech and feelings during the role play form the basis for self-appraisal and feedback from others who are observing; from this they learn which behaviour, words and approaches are effective. A role play can be used:

• to practice effective communication and interpersonal skills
• to practice approaches to forthcoming real-life situations
• to replay a situation that was not successfully handled in order to extract lessons for the future
• to recognize a change in attitude and then practice it

The effectiveness of the role play is in the genuineness of behaviour and quality of feedback which gets generated. People are unwilling to put themselves at the risk of appearing foolish or of making mistakes in public. Feedback should be constructive. If not it is counter-productive and can sap confidence and also create barriers to further learning. Positive and well-handled feedback can reinforce effective behaviour, instil confidence and highlight specific areas for improvement in a way that is not critical and is readily acceptable.

 

In-basket Exercise

This is a simulation activity, where the participants must sort and act on the content of a typical ‘mail box’, i.e., ‘inbox’. The contents in the basket could include letters, reports, notes and memos or some other content that can be delivered in the paper form, electronically or in some such combination. The participant then has to respond in writing within the specified time duration. Time limit is of crucial importance here as a major component of the exercise is to train the participant to respond to pressures at work place and respond to deadlines. Participants are met by trainers once the exercise gets completed to gain insights’ into the thought processes they used when completing the exercise. These are done individually or in groups and are useful for administrative and management positions too.

The following tips for writing in-basket items can be helpful depending on the objective of the training exercise:

• Bury a critical item at the end of the sequence of items (to drive home the merits of prioritizing).
• Put an important meeting on the calendar and have another important person setting another meeting at the same time (time management).
• Include a memo from a superior who requests that the trainee take some action that is ethically or professionally questionable (ethics training).
• Include instances of inappropriate upward delegation (supervisory training).
• Have a superior suggest a particular employee be delegated an assignment, yet have other evidence in other items (may be performance appraisal records given in background information) which indicate that the employee is not performing well (conflict resolution).

 

Behaviour Modelling

As the name suggests, this training is about learning model behaviour. There are a few steps to this training. First, the participants are shown model behaviour with the help of a video in which the protagonist is handling a certain situation in a model manner. The choice of the video and the situation will depend entirely on the objective of the training programme. After the participants have watched the video, they are given role plays in which they have to model the behaviour which they have seen on the video. This is followed by a feedback from other participants and then facilitator of the programme. This iterative process helps the participant internalize the learning through practice.

 

T-groups

T-groups are also known as sensitivity training or laboratory training. An Harvard Business Review article states, ‘When the skills to be learned involve interpersonal relations, learning by doing with feedback from a knowledgeable coach creates deep understanding. Only then is real proficiency achieved’. This is exactly what happens in a T-group. T-groups are in use for more than 60 years now. Here, there are around 8–15 participants who learn about themselves through their interaction with one another. The participants belong to a diverse group and may not be familiar with each other. The venue will also be one which they may not be familiar with, i.e., away from work. There is no formalized agenda, goal or even structure. The participants are encouraged to share their emotional reactions (such as dissent, anger, fear and warmth); this happens under the guidance of the facilitator. The importance is on sharing feelings and not evaluative judgements or even conclusions.

This helps the participants to observe and learn how their words and actions trigger emotional responses in the people they communicate with. The aim of the programme is to recognize and understand group processes, come to terms with their own behaviour pattern based on non-judgemental feedback from the facilitator and be more sensitive to the behaviour of others.

T-groups are useful in areas such as resolving conflicts, increasing ability to empathize with others, increasing openness and tolerance to diverse points of view and improving listening skills and opinions of people. Most participants do acknowledge a shift in paradigm towards becoming more sorted out individuals in life.

Transactional Analysis (TA)

When people interact with one another, they do it through the process of what is called ‘transaction’. Each of our personalities is made up of various parts: the parent, the adult and the child ego states. What each of these means is explained in Figure 13.3. The child could be adapted or free and the parent could be nurturing or controlling. However, all these ego states may be present in a positive or negative side way. An adapted child could be cooperative (positive) and compliant/resistant (negative) and a free child could be spontaneous (positive) and immature (negative). Similarly a nurturing parent could be nurturing (positive) and spoiling (negative) and a controlling parent could be structuring (positive) and critical (negative).

 

Figure 13.3 Transactional analysis—ego states

 

 

TA training seeks to make the participant understand what their ego states are, identify the ego state of others and learn to modify one's transactions to improve interpersonal relations.

For example, Robert T. Golembiewski, the author of organizational development, cites a classic example of an organization where close to 750 senior employees attended a one-week ‘sensitivity training’ process over a couple of years in diverse formats and with different aims. The objective was to provide the employees a vivid sense of a different kind of interaction than they usually experienced at work. The second objective was to develop a level of inner resources by serving as co-trainers with the help of profession trainers (external) in every T-group process. The co-trainers were HR executives who would get to sharpen their observation skills and techniques too. This would in turn initiate trust amongst the co-trainers and employees which could be used to build more openness in day-to-day activities.

 

Fishbowl Exercise

If there are two groups that have to be involved, then fishbowl is a good option. As shown in Figure 13.4, one group of learners are made to sit in an ‘inner ring’ (Group A), which is the discussion group, surrounded by the other set of learners in an ‘outer ring’ (Group B), which is the observation group. Just as people observe the fish in a fishbowl, the ‘outer ring’ observes the ‘inner ring’. The inner ring is given an activity which may be a discussion or any other activity (depending on the learning objectives), while the outer ring observes. The focus of observation can be either about the process (how) or content (what). Once the inner ring has completed the activity, both rings swap positions. The same process of activity and observation is repeated. The learning happens through the process of constructive feedback by the groups to one another. A fish bowl activity could be used as a part of behaviour training or as a training intervention for discussing difficult and controversial issues between two groups of people who may be in disagreement.

 

Figure 13.4 Fishbowl exercise

 

Job Instruction

This is a method employed in manual and clerical jobs, by which trainees systematically acquire routine instruction in key processes from a qualified instructor. The instructor first ‘tells’, i.e., they verbally explain to the trainee what they are going to be training them to do. Then they ‘show’, i.e., demonstrate the activity whilst giving verbal instructions parallely. After they have demonstrated, they let the trainee ‘try’, i.e., practice the new skill whilst supervising, assisting and giving feedback. Now the trainee is confident to carry out the new skill and the trainer leaves them to do that. However, they may be around to help or advise when they see the requirement or when the trainee seeks active help. Examples of job instruction are evident in many businesses—the shop assistant in a shopping mall, the coffee brewer in a coffee bar and even a call centre agent in a call centre.

 

Apprenticeship

Apprenticeship training is a method in which trainees learn a craft or trade by hands-on experience while working with a skilled worker, usually under a written or implied indentureship agreement. In this, an apprentice is selected by the employer to work for a pre-agreed time frame in return for the opportunity to learn a trade or a skill. The training is a combination of formal classroom sessions and on-the-job training under the supervision of an expert. The systematic training and education programme (STEP) run by The Oberoi Group is an example of apprenticeship training. STEP is a three-year programme for students who are about 18 years of age and have completed Standard XII. It offers comprehensive on-the-job training in hotel operations or kitchen operations at select hotels of The Oberoi Group for a period of three years. Alongside training, STEP also includes facilitating education through a correspondence Bachelor's degree in Tourism Management from Indira Gandhi Open University. The trainees’ basic expenses are taken care of and they are given a stipend during this period.

 

Coaching

The term ‘coach’ first appeared as part of the English vocabulary in the 1500s, and the meaning was documented as carriage. If we compare the root meaning of the word with today's usage, it still holds the same meaning. It helps to transfer an employee from where they are currently to where they want to be. There are two types of coaching: personal coaching and executive coaching. The former focuses on the improvement of life and the latter is focused for business executives that are meant to enhance their performance. This normally is not done in groups and is preferably a one-to-one process. Expert coaches require a deep knowledge and understanding of the process and the variety of skills, techniques and styles that are appropriate to the coaching context. Before working on the strategy, coaches first assess the personality traits and see how they react and handle various situations; it is only then they commence working on their strategy.

Coaching creates a collaborative alliance with employees to establish goals and pursue systematic and structured actions plans until the goals are achieved. It helps to alter maladaptive behaviours and generate adaptive and successful action. Coaching can have four purposes:

1. coaching for skills
2. coaching for performance
3. coaching for development
4. coaching for an executive's agenda

Executive coaching tries to cover all these by exploring the executives work style and work environment.

 

Mentoring

The word ‘mentor’ comes from The Odyssey written by the Greek poet Homer. When Odysseus (Ulysses) goes to fight the Trojan War, he entrusts the learning of his son and the only heir Telemachus in the hands of a wise and sensitive family friend called Mentor. Thus mentorship refers to a personal developmental relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps a less experienced or less knowledgeable person. It is the ‘act of helping another learn’. Mentors can help mentees realize their dreams by helping them discover their strengths and how to leverage them and shortcomings and how to overcome them. While coaching is about helping build a skill, mentoring is broader than that. A mentor can guide a mentee in all walks of life to have a more fruitful experience. The concept of mentoring also finds its roots in the Indian concept of shiksha–learning through communication, open discussion and gaining knowledge using questioning along with a sense of wholeness.

At GAP, India, the mentoring programme is where the senior or experienced employees will transfer ‘life skills’ (not just job skills) to the relatively younger employees. Mentoring meetings between mentors and mentees happen around twice a month. The learning sessions go beyond standard job and performance discussions; it helps the mentees to discover new pathways for success and other learnings that help the individual to be more effective on as well as off the job.

Secondments

A secondment is where an employee temporarily changes job roles within the same company or transfers to another organization for an agreed period of time. These are special arrangements permitting an individual to work in one organization to work for another department of organization on either their specialty area or in some new role, with the object of extending the experience of the former to the benefit of the host department.

 

For the purpose of learning, secondments are usually done for the benefit of the transferred employee. It gives the employee the opportunity to explore in a risk-free manner an entirely new career possibility. Secondment to an external organization will help in building a broader outlook by exposure to a different culture, different imperatives and a whole new way of working. Large business organizations such as the Aditya Birla Group which has done many acquisitions in the recent past use this to give international exposure to its managers. Consider this in the Aditya Birla group, an Indian manager who has moved to Thailand on secondment takes time to adjust to the fact that the night shift has only women workers, something that is illegal in India. Similarly, an Indian manager posted to the group's Australian mines can find the task of ferrying workers to the mine site by an aircraft, to and fro each day, a rather unusual experience. Such perspectives can be developed only through first-hand experience and this what secondments are all about.

 

13.7 DESIGNING TRAINING CONTENT

Let us learn to design a training programme with the help of instructional system design (ISD). ISD is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. Figure 13.5 summarizes the ADDIE model which we are going to use to learn the designing content for a training programme. ADDIE is an acronym for analysis, design, develop, implement and evaluate.

It is assumed that any kind of a performance gap can be closed with training. However, this is not true. Hence, it is important that before we embark on some design of a training programme, we pause and check whether the training is the right solution to the problem. Take an employee whose performance is not up to the mark. Plot this employee on this grid and see what the answer to the problem could be (Figure 13.6).

Once it has been identified that training is the solution to the current or potential performance gap, then the ADDIE process needs to be followed. Let us understand what each term of this process mean.

13.7.1 Analyse

This step is what we have described as TNA which is required to be done at the organizational task and at the person level. This level would also analyse learner characteristics and the tasks to be learned. The result of the analysis could be presented in the form of a template given. Refer to the Field Guide Training Analysis Overview Report.

13.7.2 Design

The design step would start by defining the learning objective. Once learning objectives have been identified, then the entry behaviours of learners need to be articulated. Entry behaviours describe what the learners must know before entering the training process. Just as a college requires certain standards to be met in order to enrol, a learning process should require a base level of KSA. Then the learning programme has to be subdivided into learning steps. These learning steps need to be then arranged in a sequential manner. Some alternatives used in sequencing training activities are:

 

Figure 13.5 ADDIE model for designing learning programmes

• known to unknown
• simple to complex
• theory to practice
• concrete to general
• general to particular
• part to whole
• rule to example (or vice versa)
• logical, thematic, chronological, building on previous knowledge (or one of the following)

Figure 13.6 Field guide training analysis overview report

13.7.3 Develop

The develop phase basically fleshes out all the previous content built in the prior two phases (analysis and design) into a complete learning solution. The final output is the training courseware—the content as well as the media to be used for loading the content. The end result is the instructional courseware—the media and its content. The first and most important step is the choice of training method which you would use for the training. There are two ways to look at this. First, what is the kind of training that you are planning—whether it is for imparting knowledge or skill or change in behaviour. Different learning objectives will have to be tackled with the appropriate method. Another way to look at this is how much can the learning depend on the learner's own idea and approaches? How much of dependence on the trainer and training material would you want to factor into the programme?

Once the training method is chosen, the next step is answering some basic questions about the delivery mechanism. Which medium should be used: classroom, e-learning or on-the-job; would learning be phase-wise or at a stretch; should the trainer be in-house or sourced from outside? Is there any learning material already developed in the past which could be used? Once all these questions are answered, all elements have to be synthesized into one coherent training programme. It is also important to validate whether the programme will deliver the goods, i.e., achieve the learning objectives (Figure 13.7).

13.7.4 Implement

The hallmark of a well-designed training course is that it should be designed in such a way that not much is left to imagination. All steps should be documented well so that the delivery can be made to the trainer as accurately as possible. ‘Train the trainers’ should be designed and conducted, and an invigorating learning environment should be engendered. The training should then be conducted the way it was planned to be.

13.7.5 Evaluate

A careful look at the concept map will tell you that evaluation is an integral part of the ISD. Evaluation can be defined to be a systematic determination of the attainment of objectives set out for each subprocess of the training design process. In the analysis phase, we need to evaluate the relevance of the learning objective, whether it would serve the organizational goals or not and that if achieved would it result in performance enhancement. In the design phase, we need to check whether it has been designed as learning steps which would help the learner improve their performance. In the development phase, we have to critically evaluate whether all the methods used for the training are appropriate or not. Implementation evaluation will be checking whether learners have achieved the learning objective or not.

 

Figure 13.7 Freedom and control in training

 

13.8 TRAINING DELIVERY: DELIVERY MECHANISMS OF TRAINING

Well-designed training content, if not delivered in the most appropriate way, may not produce the desired result. The following sections are the various delivery mechanisms available for the trainer to choose from.

 

13.8.1 Classroom Training

Speaking of training always conjures up the image of a classroom. Classroom training is one where the learners sit in a classroom and learning is facilitated by a trainer/facilitator/coach in a classroom. At the turn of the 21st century, all management pundits announced the demise of classrooms and predicted their replacement by e-learning. However, that has failed to come by and classroom training still holds it ground in this fast-changing world, as the simplest and easiest way to reach out to large groups of learners. However, it should not be made out that this method has no failings. It does, and, therefore, it is imperative to design a blended approach towards classroom training. It is a wise idea to blend classroom delivery with audio visuals, activities and other innovations to make it more engaging and hence effective.

 

13.8.2 Audio-visual Methods

An audio-visual (AV) training method would constitute the learner listening and watching media content for the purpose of learning. Learning may be facilitated with a printed or an electronic response book. Apart from the obvious advantage of a picture being better than a thousand words, another advantage of using this method is that the AV presentation remains the same, no matter how many times it is played. The flaw, however, is that it is a one-way discourse and does not leave room for the participant to ask questions. This kind of training is best for skills that have to be learnt by seeing and also for behavioural interventions such as behaviour modelling.

 

13.8.3 Distance Learning

It is a process that connects learners with the distributed learning resources. Technology is not mandatory for such a learning—correspondence courses that use printed books/documents as modes of instruction are also considered as a part of distance learning. Nevertheless, it also includes use of internet and technology to deliver learning material, computer-based training (CBT), use of satellite, use of virtual reality as well as video and audio conferencing.

13.8.4 E-learning

It denotes all forms of electronically supported learning systems. In this, all educational activities are carried out by individuals or groups working either offline or online and synchronously or asynchronously via networked or standalone computers and other electronic devices. Table 13.2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of using e-learning.

 

E-learning can facilitate:

• Asynchronous e-learning (self-paced courses and discussion boards)
• Synchronous e-learning (virtual classrooms)
• Development of learning systems (learning management systems)

Asynchronous Learning.   Asynchronous e-learning permits individuals to learn at any time and at their own pace. Learning can be of two kinds: self-paced learning programmes and discussion boards.

Self-paced courses: This would mean that learners can learn at their own pace. These courses can be available on the internet, intranet, local area networks, on a CD-ROM or DVD. Self-paced e-learning courses usually have the following features:

• Multimedia: A mix of text, graphics, animation, audio and video to enhance the learning process.
• Interactivity: An instructional strategy that helps a learner practice what they have learned.
• Bookmarking: Let the learner stop the course at any time and restart it from the same point.
• Tracking: Report the learner's performance within a course to a learning management system.

Some self-paced courses may also have these advanced features:

• Simulation: Providing practice with a mock-up of a real system
• Online experts: Provide access to experts through chat or online discussion
• Multiple bookmarks: Designate one or more pages of the course to access while on the job
• Search: Search through a course to find the information required to complete a task.
• Notes and Highlights: Mark one or more parts of a course that contain the most important information.

Discussion boards: It is a collection of conversations that occur over time. They are also known as message/bulletin boards and discussion forums. It could start out as a question from an individual and then a little later another individual responds to that question. Others then respond to the question, i.e., ‘creating a thread’. At times, the individuals could also start their own conversation forming another ‘thread’. The facilitator could also ask an open-ended question that could lead to a class discussion, i.e., ‘threaded discussion’. This could be used to support a group of individuals taking the same session or can be used to support individuals performing similar tasks. A discussion group is a very efficient way to provide expert answers to a large group of people. A single answer to a common question can benefit many.

Synchronous E-learning.   It lets the facilitator conduct class over the intranet. It also permits individuals to interact with experts and peers. Some of the methods are:

Virtual Classroom: It helps in duplicating the functionalities of a real-time class in the virtual space. Facilitators/teachers and students make use of their computer and go to a virtual meeting place, instead of a classroom. Attendance is taken to those who are present for the sessions. The facilitator can opt to make use of slide presentation, i.e., powerpoint, video or audio conferencing, or share white boards—this helps the students interact with each other by typing comments, highlighting and drawing. There are also options like chat, messaging etc. The facilitator can also have breakout sessions and administer quizzes to the students.

Development and management: E-learning organizations also use e-learning for developing robust learning environments, for example, learning management systems. A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration of training, management of training documentation, tracking and reporting of training programmes, classroom and online events, e-learning programmes and training content (for details read LMS in the Special Topic, i.e., IT in HR). Knowledge management is a framework to institutionalize processes to fully leverage the ‘collective knowledge’ in an organization.

Table 13.2 Advantages and pitfalls of e-learning

Advantages	Pitfalls
■ Anytime access, i.e., just in time	■ No support for learners
■ Training delivery is uniform all across the globe	■ Lack of time and space for learners
■ Potential cost reductions (especially in the long run)	■ Attempts to regularly motivate learners
■ Customizing training for each learner	■ Negativity towards e-learning
■ Unlimited number of learners	■ Lack of basic IT skill amongst employees

13.9 EVALUATION OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Needless to say, any effort made in the area of learning and development should be such that it facilitates achievement of objectives of the organization. The good news today is that organizations have realized the benefits of engendering a learning environment in the organization, but the bad news is that though a lot of money and resources are spent in this area, it is still not clear in many places how much this spent amount is contributing to the achievement of organizational objectives. Read the case illustration on Page 544. It is a typical case unfolding in many organizations today.

It is, therefore, very important to evaluate the results of any learning programme. There are basically three things you can measure: (1) participants’ reaction to the programme, (2) participants’ learning from the programme and (3) change in participants’ behaviour as a result of learning from the programme.

A very simple way of doing it can be by measuring the performance of the participants’ before and after the programme and noting if there is any change in it. In the chart given in Figure 13.8, it can be seen that there is a sharp increase in the number of calls made by a medical representative to doctors in a week. While this is an easy method, often it is not easy to get the data to do it.

Another method that can be used is controlled experimentation. In this, two groups are taken; one is the learner group and the other is a control group. Data are then obtained on the performance of both the groups before and after the training. It is very effective when one has to find out whether the enhanced performance is because of (say) a raise in the salary, better equipment to do a job or the training which has been given.

In training literature, the most commonly followed model of evaluation is that of Kirkpatrick (1959). As per this model, effectiveness of a training programme has to be measured at four levels:

1. Reaction: As the term suggests, this level of evaluation takes feedback on the trainee's reaction to the programme regarding the coverage, presentation, duration etc. of the programme. This level is often measured with questionnaires that are passed around after most training classes. This level measures one thing: the learner's perception of the course. Learners are often keenly aware of what they need to know to accomplish a task. Did the trainee find it worthwhile to spend time on the training? Was it in line with the trainee's expectations? If the training programme fails to satisfy their needs, a determination should be made as to whether it is the fault of the programme design or delivery.
2. Learning: At this level, the evaluation is intended to test the learning of the trainee—whether they have acquired the knowledge, enhanced their skills and changed their attitude. Tests can be factored into design of the training programme. It is important to understand that learning at this stage does not ensure performance at the workplace, and hence there has to be a different level of evaluation for that.
3. Behaviour: At this level, evaluation is about whether the trainees have applied their learning to their job or not. Evaluations at this stage can be measured through observation or formal testing (where possible). The question that has to be asked at this stage is that ‘Are learners using their newly acquired skill at the job?’
4. Result: This is the final level of evaluation which measures the impact of the training programme on the business. It is not necessary that the impact be measured in rupee terms. Impact can be measured in terms of customer satisfaction, process fitness etc.

Figure 13.8 Tracking training effectiveness

 

Evaluations can also be looked at in two categories:

1. Formative evaluation is the method for judging the worth of a programme while the programme activities are forming (in progress). This part of the evaluation focuses on the process. It is useful to use ‘end-of-the-day’ feedback forms and observation for this.
2. Summative evaluation is the method of judging the worth of a programme at the end-of-the-programme activities (summation). Here focus is on the outcome. Formative evaluation can also be done using questionnaires, detailed interviews, observation, tracking of parameters likely to be affected by the training etc.

13.9.1 Training Metrics: Training Scorecard

Traditionally, metrics to measure training effectiveness have been abandonment rate, applicability ratios, course efficiency, skill effectiveness and appropriateness ratio. These have been replaced by a more sophisticated measure—the training scorecard. A training scorecard measures the performance of the training function in providing training programmes to the employees in line with the strategic learning objectives. The scorecard consists of different training angles and metrics assessing the performance of various programmes and it also helps in identifying topics for future training programmes. It also measures both input and output which links them to business and it does help in bringing the much needed rigour, and one can view monthly and yearly tangibles and intangibles in number. On a monthly basis, the training team collects data from the LMS/HRIS system to compute the metrics and generate reports in the form of a scorecard. They are assessed at the start of the financial year, based on the budget. Hence, scorecards have now become increasingly a widespread method not only for understanding training metrics but also for evaluating the same.

13.10 MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

Often used in the training circles is another term ‘management development’. Given its frequent use in the industry, it is important to understand what management development is and how is it different from other learning and development initiatives.

Mintzberg (1973) groups managerial activities in three broad categories:

1. Interpersonal roles (arising from formal authority and status and supporting the information and decision activities)
2. Information-processing roles
3. Decision-making roles

In these roles, a manager has to act like a figurehead, a liaison, a leader, a monitor, a disseminator of information, a spokesperson, a change agent, a conflict resolver, a resource allocator and a negotiator. With the business environment becoming more globalized, technologically driven and prone to continuous change, many more specialized management roles are emerging. Now managers need to be coaches and counsellors, team builders, leaders and project managers. Obviously based on these new roles, there are new skills that have to be developed in managers—these could be project management, staff development, IT management, customer orientation, languages, process improvement, cross-cultural team management, etc. Learning initiatives built around these themes will constitute management development programmes.

Management development programme like any other learning initiative is usually a composite programme comprising of diverse learning methods and objectives.

1. Watch http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoMNq4Tijto&feature=related

   Here David Garvin, a Harvard Business school professor, is conducting a workshop for building effective learning organization. It will answer many questions that you might have about how to build a learning organization.

2. Check out https://surveys.hbs.edu/perseus/se.ashx?s=381B5FE533C282FF

   This is a free survey which organizations could undertake to answer the question ‘Are you a learning organization or not?’

3. http://www.learning-org.com/01.01/0038.html

   Those interested in how this concept of learning organization has taken shape over the years will find here the ‘history of learning organization’.

4. http://www.timetothink.com/uk/index.php?option=com_wrapper&Itemid=111&phpMyAdmin=9cf86980e10a84c94518cc4163592ee0

   This is an online assessment which assesses how much you contribute to creating a thinking environment. The questions in the questionnaire are a direct pointer to skills one must develop in oneself. Attempting the assessment gives you feedback and pondering over the questions would tell you what you ought to do going forward.

5. If you develop an interest in Transactional Analysis ie TA you ought to read I'm OK. You're OK by Thomas Harris and Games People Play by Eric Berne.

6. http://www.ldpride.net/learning-style-test.html

   You could check out what your personal learning style is at this link. What changes would you make in your learning attempts now based on the feedback that you have got about yourself?

1. Critically evaluate how being a learning organization helps it gain a competitive edge.
2. What are the different learning styles that people might have?
3. What is TNA and whom is it done for?
4. Describe the entire training process explaining each element of the process.
5. Name any five methods of training which are experiential in nature. When will you use such methods?
6. What do you understand by management development and design a management development programme for ‘sales professionals’ at a retail outlet?

1. Individual exercise: You are the Training manager for an IT organization which sells ERP software. Your organization has decided to cater a new industry vertical which is ‘banking’. Your HR manager wants to have a mix of new and old employees in the new sales team. The recruitment team has been briefed that the new sales executives’ should have prior experience of selling similar or other IT products in the banking sector. You plan to train these people in your ERP technology as a part of their orientation. You have been given the task of doing a domain (banking)-specific training for your old sales guys who are proficient at selling the ERP solution but have no clue about the banking sector. How will you approach this challenge?
2. Group exercise: Nancy Kline, President of Time To Think (http://www.timetothink.com), an international leadership development and coaching company, says that a thinking environment is essential for people to learn better and help organizations to produce better ideas in less time with better business outcomes. She describes a thinking environment as having the following 10 components:
   1. Attention: listening with respect, interest and fascination
   2. Incisive questions: removing assumptions that limit ideas
   3. Equality: treating each other as thinking peers and giving equal turns and attention. Keeping agreement and boundaries
   4. Appreciation: practicing a five-to-one ratio of appreciation to criticism
   5. Ease: offering freedom from rush and urgency
   6. Encouragement: moving beyond competition
   7. Feelings: allowing sufficient emotional release to restore thinking
   8. Information: providing a full and accurate picture of reality
   9. Place: creating a physical environment that says back to people, ‘You matter’
   10. Diversity: adding quality because of the difference between us.

   Discuss in a group what processes would you put in place to create a thinking environment in your class and in an organization.

3. Individual exercise: Yakult Danone India has an army of girls to home deliver Yakult, a probiotic drink, on scooters. Conduct a task analysis to assess the training requirement for an entry-level Yakult delivery lady.
4. Individual exercise: If you had to organize an Interviewing Skills Workshop for your middle managers what are the different elements of the workshop to suit each of these learning styles?

 

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