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Video Production Environments
Video production takes place in three different environments: in a television/video studio that is specifically designed to accommodate the various technical needs for production, on location in the field, or in the postproduction editing environment. Productions can be accomplished with a single camera or with multiple cameras. Many live productions (e.g., news and sports) feature multicamera production setups in either studio or remote locations. Single-camera production is often favored when postproduction editing is a part of the production process: on-location news productions, documentaries, and music videos are typical of this production style. Because it is such an important part of the process of production, the postproduction editing environment will be discussed as well.
The Video Studio Environment
The video studio environment comprises three principal areas: the video studio itself, the control room, and other production support areas.
■ The Video Studio
The video studio is a controlled environment designed specifically to accommodate the needs of television and video production. The concept of control is central to the notion of video production: for a production to be successful, the producer and his or her crew must take control of a variety of technical elements, such as lighting, sound, and electrical power, in addition to controlling the aspects of the performance that are central to the production. The video studio provides such a controlled environment. (See Figure 2.1.)
Typically, the video studio is a rather large space with a smooth floor to allow for camera movement. The ceilings are high to support lighting instruments, which are mounted above the action areas and out of the field of view of the cameras. The lighting system is supplied with sufficient electrical power for the lighting instruments that are in place. The walls of the studio contain material that provides sound insulation from outside noise and deadens the sound within the studio as well. Connections for microphones may be strategically placed around the perimeter of the studio.
One or more cycloramas encircle the studio walls, serving as a backdrop for the action. Cycloramas (abbreviated as cyc) may be made out of soft material (e.g., fabric curtains) or they may be constructed as hard walls. Typical cyclorama colors are black, beige, and blue or green. Black backdrops seem to disappear on camera and create the illusion of vast space behind the action. Beige backdrops can be illuminated with colored lights to create a particular mood. Blue or green backdrops are used for chroma key special effects: the action is shot against the blue or green wall or curtain. The backdrop is eliminated from the picture electronically, and new background information is supplied to create a particular effect. This technique is widely used in news production to insert weather map information behind the weathercaster. It is also used in special effects production to provide dramatic backdrops to the foreground action.
Sometimes the cyclorama encircling the studio is made out of a hard wall material rather than cloth. Lighting can be controlled more precisely on a hard cyc because, unlike curtains, there are no wrinkles or folds to contend with.
Studios can accommodate one or more cameras. Many studios are used for multicamera production. For the typical newscast, three cameras are operated simultaneously to provide a variety of views of the action. Soap operas, discussion programs, and game shows are produced in this style as well. (See Figure 2.2.)
■ The Production Control Room
The production control room is separate from the video studio space. (See Figure 2.3.) In some facilities, where the control room is adjacent to the studio, there may be a wall of windows between the control room and the studio to allow direct line of sight into the studio. But in many facilities the control room is physically separate from the studio, and the only way to see the action in the studio is to view the images produced by the cameras in the studio on the monitors in the control room.
• VIDEO MONITORS The camera monitors are organized into a display that can easily be viewed by the production personnel in the control room. Each camera is assigned a monitor that shows the image the camera is producing. There will also be video monitors for the graphics generator, special effects generator, video players, and any other remote feeds into the control room. In addition, there will be monitors labeled “program” and “preview.” The program monitor shows the image that is being broadcast or recorded; the preview monitor allows the production personnel to set up special effects and view them before they go out online as part of the program feed.
In modern facilities one or more large flat screen displays called a video monitor wall are used to provide monitoring. Software in the video switcher allows the screens to be divided into discrete display areas for each of the video sources. (See Figure 2.4.)
• VIDEO SHADING/CAMERA CONTROL When multiple cameras are operating simultaneously in the studio, it is important that the quality of the image that is produced by each camera looks the same as the images produced by all of the other cameras. Each studio camera has a camera control unit (CCU) that contains controls that are used to adjust the picture and color quality of the camera. This process is called camera shading, and it is the responsibility of the video engineer.
• VIDEO SWITCHER Every video component that is capable of producing an image is routed through the video switcher: camera, video players, graphics generators, and so on. The video switcher is an electronic device that allows the technical director to select which one of a variety of video sources will be seen at any given time. At the director’s command, the technical director punches the button that corresponds to the command (e.g., “Take camera 1”), and the image that is produced by the source is then broadcast live or sent to the video recorder that is recording what is being produced.
• AUDIO BOARD The audio board, also called the audio mixer, is similar to the video switcher in that it is used to control the various audio sources used in the program. Microphones, CDs, audio from playback video recorders, and all other audio sources are routed through the audio board, where the audio engineer controls their level and sound quality and mixes them together as the production progresses.
• CHARACTER GENERATOR/GRAPHICS In live studio production, graphic information is added to the program in real time. Program titles and name identifications are generated by a character generator (CG), essentially a small computer that produces electronic lettering. The output of the CG is routed through the video switcher, where it is combined with the background camera information to provide a composite image of lettering over the background image.
• LIGHTING BOARD The studio may contain dozens or even hundreds of lighting instruments. Each of the lighting instruments is controlled by a lighting board, which may be installed in the control room or on the studio floor. The lighting director can control the intensity of each instrument by manipulating the individual dimmer assigned to the instrument.
• VIDEO RECORDERS A series of video recorders (VRs) may be located in the control room as well. (See Figure 2.5.) These devices can be used to insert previously recorded material into the program in real time or record the program output of the video switcher. Modern digital video recorders use memory cards, hard disk drives, or optical discs to record and play back the video signal.
In small studio operations, the record and playback VRs are located in the production control room. In larger facilities, they may be located in a separate master control area.
• PRODUCTION CREW COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS During a production, the television director communicates with the other members of the production crew through a headset communication system called private line (PL) communication. Each member of the studio and control room production crew wears a headset that is equipped with a small microphone, but only the director’s headset microphone is continuously turned on. Other members of the crew can activate their microphones to talk, but only if the situation seriously warrants it. For the director to keep command of the production, it is important to keep headset chatter to a minimum. It is also important to make sure that all of the headsets in use are secured to the heads of the production crew. An unused headset that is connected to the PL line may emit the director’s calls loudly enough through the headphone speakers to be picked up by the live microphones in the studio.
Most control rooms are also equipped with a talkback system. This is a microphone mounted on the console near the director that is connected to a small loudspeaker in the studio that allows the director’s voice to be heard by everyone in the studio. The talkback is used only during rehearsals and at other times when a program is not being recorded or broadcast live. The talkback should be used sparingly; if the director needs to communicate only with one person on the studio floor, communication via the headset system is preferable.
Another communication tool between control room personnel and the talent involved in the production is the interruptible feedback (IFB) device. This is a small earpiece worn by the talent that allows the producer and director to communicate directly with the talent while the program is in progress. If the producer or director needs to communicate changes in the program or provide information to the talent while the program is in progress, he or she communicates through the IFB.
■ Other Production Support Areas
As was noted earlier, one of the greatest assets of the television studio is that it provides a controlled environment for production. However, it is important to recognize that the studio is an empty space, so every element of the production needs to be created and brought into that space. Many production facilities include a number of other production support areas to make this task easier.
• SCENE, COSTUME, AND PROPERTIES SHOPS Most video programs that are recorded in a studio take advantage of a set that has been uniquely designed for that production. Sets can be computer generated (see virtual sets in Chapter 12) or they can be constructed in a scene shop that is equipped with sufficient equipment and tools to enable the set designer to construct a set for studio use. Once the set—basically, the furniture and walls or backdrop—has been built, it needs to be dressed with properties (or props) that give it a realistic look and feel. A well-equipped property shop can help here. Some productions need costumes as well. Although many video programs feature on-camera performers in everyday contemporary dress, some programs do not. Continuing productions such as daytime television soap operas rely on costume shops that can make costumes on demand and also hold in storage thousands of other costume items that can be used as the situation demands.
Many university and college video courses are taught in colleges that also support theater arts programs. These programs typically have scene, costume, and properties shops that provide support for their productions and may be available to support your productions if your college is so organized.
• MAKEUP AND DRESSING ROOMS Large-scale productions frequently require the availability of makeup and dressing rooms for program talent. A combination makeup/dressing room is typically a large room with mirror-covered walls. Special lighting is used so that the makeup artists can accurately control the application of the makeup to the talent.
• GREEN ROOM Many video production facilities provide a green room for individuals who are going to appear on a program. This so-called green room is a waiting room for guests that frequently includes makeup mirrors and restrooms. It may also include a video monitor so that guests can watch the program in progress before they appear on the set themselves.
■ Studio Production Personnel: Roles and Responsibilities
Video studio productions, whether they are single-camera or multicamera productions, are characterized by large production crews. Of course, the size of the crew is determined by the needs of the production and the size of the budget. In addition, in many small-scale college and university productions, one individual may assume responsibility for more than one of the roles described below.
• PRODUCER Unlike feature films, in which the director is typically the most recognizable member of the production group, in television production, principal responsibility for the organization and creative control of a program falls to the producer. The producer has the principal responsibility for organizing the production. He or she hires the director and the rest of the production crew, administers the budget, and establishes the production schedule. Another term used to describe the producer in series television production is showrunner.
• DIRECTOR The director has principal responsibility for a program during the time of the actual production. The director is responsible for visualizing the program; that is, translating the written script into pictures and sound. Before the actual production date, the director creates a storyboard of the script and determines how the action will be staged. This latter activity is called blocking. The director then coordinates the rehearsal of the program. Several rehearsals are typical. For example, in a dramatic program or situation comedy, the director may supervise a script reading with the actors. After that, the action is blocked; that is, all the characters’ movements are carefully planned out or staged, and the actors rehearse without the cameras, typically outside of the studio. They then move into the studio and rehearse it again with the cameras. Finally, the program or scene is recorded in the studio with the director calling each camera shot in real time from the control room.
In television news production, the roles of producer and director vary somewhat from the descriptions given here. The news producer is responsible for organizing the news content of the newscast, including the number and order of the stories to be covered. The director is in charge of getting the program on the air, within the allotted time, and generally without the benefit of rehearsal.
• ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR The associate director (AD)—sometimes also called the assistant director—has principal responsibility for timing the show. Time is very critical in all of video production but particularly in live studio productions. Not only must the overall show be precisely timed, but also the length of the individual segments of the show must be closely monitored, particularly if commercials are to be inserted. The AD usually has several stopwatches or clocks at his or her disposal. This allows the AD to time each segment individually, to time the overall length of the program, and, as the program nears completion, to provide a countdown to the close of the program. In very complex productions, the AD may also have responsibility for readying camera shots in advance of the director’s call for them. The timing functions of the AD will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8.
• TECHNICAL DIRECTOR The technical director (TD) operates the video switcher. The TD has two principal responsibilities. Not only must the TD punch up the proper video source on the switcher as the director calls for it, but the TD must also read ahead in the script to anticipate special effects and composited shots that need to be shown in the preview monitor before the director calls for them. A good TD is like an extension of the director, anticipating the director’s calls and then quickly punching them up on line at the appropriate time. A poor TD can ruin a production by not paying attention to the script and the director’s calls.
• SOUND ENGINEER The sound engineer (or audio engineer) has principal responsibility for coordinating the audio elements of the program. This involves selecting the correct type of microphones for use in the program and setting them up and testing them before the production begins. The audio engineer may also have responsibility for the overall sound design of the program; that is, he or she may be in charge of selecting the individual cuts of music and sound effects that are used within the program. During rehearsal, the sound engineer checks to make sure that all the audio components are functioning and in particular, with respect to microphones, establishes a sound level for each performer by asking each performer to speak into the microphone.
During the production, the sound engineer controls the audio mixing console. Like the technical director, the audio engineer must both anticipate and respond to the director’s commands. By reading ahead in the script, the audio engineer can anticipate who will speak next or which music selection or sound effect will be used next in order to be ready to execute the director’s command as soon as it is given.
• LIGHTING DIRECTOR The lighting director coordinates all elements of lighting for the program. Working from the floor plan for the program—a diagram of the set and props and their location on the studio floor—the lighting director selects the appropriate lighting instruments to be used and installs them in the appropriate locations. Unlike film production, in which lighting setups are done one shot at a time, studio television production focuses on lighting large areas where the action will be staged continuously. There is no time to change the position of lights during a live broadcast or video recording session, so all of the lighting instruments need to be positioned correctly before the program begins.
News and talk programs, which use the same set design day after day, rely on preset lighting. Once the lighting director has established the basic lighting setup for the program, it does not need to be changed. The lights can simply be turned on at the beginning of the day and turned off when the production is finished.
• CAMERA OPERATORS Multicamera video studio productions typically use three cameras, although depending on the complexity of the program there may be fewer or more. An individual camera operator controls each camera. Like the TD and the sound engineer, the camera operator listens for commands from the director (e.g., “Camera 1 get me a close-up of the puppet”) and quickly executes the director’s commands. Camera operators should always have a usable shot ready for the director. Camera operators should also make sure that they have correctly set the focus of the zoom lens so that if the director calls for a zoom in or out, the shot will remain in focus during the zoom.
If a program is fully scripted, that is, if all of the shots for the entire program have been identified, each camera operator will have a shot list that specifies all of the shots assigned to a particular camera. The camera operator can look ahead in the shot list to see what shot is required next and then have that shot ready when the director calls for it.
Because unexpected things often happen during production, camera operators should always be ready to respond to the director. They need to keep their hands on the camera at all times and be ready to move the camera or zoom in or out at the director’s command.
Many news studios have replaced cameras operated by human beings with robotic camera systems. Camera movements are controlled from the control room by a computer system that interacts with the camera’s panning and zooming controls. The cameras can also be programmed to move along the studio floor. It is wise for people in the studio to be alert at all times to avoid being run over by a camera.
• FLOOR DIRECTOR If the TD is an extension of the director in the control room, the floor director is the extension of the director in the studio. The floor director’s principal duties are to give cues to the talent and to help the camera operators move the cameras. Although all members of the production crew, including the floor director, can hear all the director’s commands through the studio headset system, the program’s performers do not wear headsets and cannot hear the director’s commands. The floor director gives the program performers cues for when to begin to speak and when to end, which camera to look at, and so on. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 9.
Floor directors also help the camera operators to move the cameras as needed. Because each camera is tethered to the control room with a cable, moving the cameras during a production can sometimes seem like moving through an obstacle course. The floor director can help to keep the cables out of the path of moving cameras so that they can move smoothly from one position to another.
• GRAPHICS DIRECTOR Large production facilities may have a graphic design department that is charged with producing artwork and titles for productions staged in the facility. Today these graphics are produced almost entirely electronically by using sophisticated computer graphics systems. Smaller studios may rely on a simple character generator to generate titles as the program is produced. The graphics director or character generator operator creates a list of all of the graphics that are needed in the program and types the titles into the system’s memory before the program begins. It is very important to check and double-check all program titles and name superimposition titles for accuracy and correct spelling before the program begins.
• VIDEO ENGINEER The video engineer has principal responsibility for the technical integrity of the video signal and the look of the pictures the cameras are producing. The video engineer makes sure that the cameras and other video components are operating correctly. If technical problems emerge during a production, the engineer tries to fix them promptly. Before the beginning of a production session, the video engineer is responsible for camera setup and adjusts the white balance and aperture (exposure) of each of the cameras to make sure that they are reproducing the image accurately. During the production, the video engineer operates the camera control units to make adjustments in picture quality as needed. This is called camera shading.
• VIDEO RECORDER OPERATOR The video recorder (VR) operator controls the video machines that are used to send prerecorded material to the video switcher during the production of a program. The VR operator also controls the machine that is used to record the finished program. The VR operator, like the other members of the production crew, is connected to the director via the studio headset system.
In some facilities, the video recorder is located in the production control room; in other facilities it may be located in the master control area. The master control operator is responsible for operating the machines that record the control room signals as well as the signals of other incoming video sources (e.g., microwave and satellite links).
The Video Field Production Environment
Although studio-based production remains popular because it provides a controlled, cost-effective shooting environment, location shooting is extremely popular as well. Video field production, which takes place outside of the studio environment, runs the gamut from small-scale, single-camera field production to large-scale, multicamera production.
■ Electronic News Gathering (ENG) and Electronic Field Production (EFP)
Electronic news gathering (ENG) is typical of small-scale, single-camera production. It involves a small crew (usually no more than one, two, or three people), recording with a single camera. The recorded footage is quickly edited into a short news story, or package, for broadcast on an upcoming newscast.
Location production of non-news content is generally referred to as electronic field production (EFP). The production process and work roles are similar to those in ENG, but the material that is produced covers a broad range of content areas rather than being restricted solely to news.
■ Single-Camera Field Production Personnel
Single-camera video field production is accomplished with a production group that is significantly smaller than multicamera studio or field video production. (See Figure 2.6.) Typically, the principal roles involved in producing single-camera remote productions are as described here.
• PRODUCER As in studio production, the producer is responsible for the overall organization of the production and for delegating responsibility to the other members of the production team. On small crews, the producer may also function as the director by determining what is to be shot and from which angle.
• DIRECTOR The director coordinates the activities of the production crew and performers on location. The director is responsible for making sure that all the shots that are identified in the script are recorded on location.
• CAMERA OPERATOR The camera operator, also called the videographer, or the shooter, in ENG operations, is responsible for the physical operation of the camera. Unlike studio operations, in which the output of the cameras is routed through a video switcher and sent to a video recorder, single-camera video field production utilizes a camcorder, a combination camera and video recorder, which records the image as it is being photographed. Unlike studio production, in which shots are specifically called for in sequence by the director, in single-camera field production the field videographer may have a significant amount of responsibility for determining the visual treatment of the subject matter.
• PRODUCTION ASSISTANT The production assistant (PA) is responsible for providing general production support. The PA may be asked to label and log memory cards as they are recorded, carry equipment to and from the location, and assist with setting up portable lighting instruments and microphones.
• SOUND RECORDIST AND LIGHTING DIRECTOR Productions that are more complex than the basic ENG and EFP situation described above may also include a sound recordist, who is responsible for microphone selection and placement and on-location sound recording, and a lighting director, who is responsible for the location lighting setup.
• VIDEO EDITOR Once the field material has been recorded, it is given to a video editor, who is responsible for executing the vision of the producer and director in the process of postproduction editing.
■ Multicamera Video Field Production
Sports broadcasts are typical of large-scale multicamera production. Huge video production trucks (see Figure 2.7), equipped with sophisticated control rooms for video and audio control and outfitted with multiple cameras, are used to televise sports events from location sports facilities. The crews that are involved in this type of production are similar in size and function to crews involved in multicamera studio production; the only difference is the action that is being televised or recorded takes place outside the studio environment. Besides sports, award ceremonies such as the Grammy, Emmy, and Academy Awards presentations typify this production style.
■ The Issue of Control
One of the most important challenges in video field production is to take control of the location to maximize the chances of completing a successful production. Unlike studio video production, which takes place in an environment with controlled lighting, acoustics, and sound, video field production is accomplished in remote locations where these elements may vary greatly from location to location and from one time of day to another. The ability to control these elements effectively is an essential requirement for successful video field production.
The Postproduction Environment
Most video production that is done today does not end when the shooting ends. Whether a program is produced by using single-camera or multicamera shooting techniques, postproduction editing is almost always a part of the process. Postproduction editing is discussed in detail in Chapters 10 and 11.
■ Digital Nonlinear Editing
Computer-based, digital nonlinear editing (NLE) systems have generally displaced linear videotape-based editing systems in all editing applications. Unedited video footage is uploaded into a video server or a computer that is equipped with video editing software. Once the final program has been edited, it can be exported to a memory card or a video server for storage and playback or uploaded to a website like YouTube or Vimeo for distribution over the Internet.
■ Graphics, Animation, and Special Effects
Video productions have become increasingly complex through the addition of sophisticated graphics, animation, and special effects. Each of these elements can be manipulated during the postproduction process with the use of the appropriate software applications.
■ Sound Sweetening
Although most attention of novice video producers is often focused on the pictorial elements of a production, the sound or audio portion of the program is at least as important as the picture, if not more so. Sophisticated computer-based audio editing and processing make up another important part of the postproduction process.