CHAPTER   7

The Role of
the Producer

The Creative Producer

Earlier, we learned that although every member of the production team involved in the completion of a video project is important, television is a producer’s medium. The successful producer needs to manage a complex organization to produce a successful program. To do that, the producer needs to have two significant sets of skills. Managing the human aspect of the production—dealing with cast and crew—requires the producer to have the people skills characteristic of a good communicator and manager. To manage technical aspects of production—dealing with equipment and facilities—the producer needs to be skilled in production techniques as well.

The producer decides the content that goes into a program, the visual style of the program, and the makeup of the team in charge of producing the program. In many cases, as in most television episodic series, the producer may also be the creator of the story idea behind the program. Regardless of the type of television program, whether it is a reality show, a news program, an episodic drama, a religious program, or a game show—it is the producer’s responsibility to design programs that engage audiences with compelling stories and exciting visual materials.

To illustrate this point, consider the following ad for a news-producing job that recently appeared on a web page advertising job openings for television producers:

News Producer

We are looking for a creative team leader who loves crafting a bright newscast with great writing, the best video, live cameras and intelligent graphics. We have an excellent newsroom environment, competitive on stories, and eager to recognize fresh ideas, no matter who has them …

But creating a visual style and defining the look and feel of the production are not the only responsibilities of a producer. The producer is a multitalented individual who must perform different activities in all stages of the production process. The producer must assume a variety of managerial, technical, and creative responsibilities. A producer must deal with administrators, performers, technicians, and a range of different issues, such as legal matters, salaries, schedules, and securing and managing the financial resources necessary to mount the production.

Depending on the complexity of the production and the extent of his or her financial participation in the project, an executive producer may assume different roles and levels of control, and in turn more than one person may be required to fulfill all the producing responsibilities. A line producer may be hired to take charge of all daily production activities, work very closely with the director, and ensure that all deadlines are met. In addition, an associate producer may be needed to assist the executive producers with financial, logistical, or creative matters. In small markets or on smaller projects, the producer may also serve as director, camera operator, or editor or may perform other work on the production as needed.

The Production Process Model

The television production process is, above all, a communication process. It all begins with intentionality: the reason why the producer is making the television program. There is also a sender, there is a message, there is a channel, there is a receiver, there is interpretation, and, finally, there is an effect on the viewer. The process is mostly unidirectional—from sender to receiver—with very little feedback from the receiver to the sender (viewers have very few opportunities to have an input on what they watch), although digital interactive television (ITV) may expand the opportunities for an audience for feedback. The model in Figure 7.1 depicts the process.

Each of the process components has its own subcomponents, which in turn has its own, and so forth. The communication process of television or video production takes place in different environments that in turn influence the effectiveness of the message.

The television production environment has experienced many changes throughout its history. The advent of new technologies such as the electronic field production equipment that was developed in the early 1970s and today’s digital production tools has altered many of the production procedures used to produce programs. Changes in the visual style of new programs typified by “reality” programs and by many of the programs produced by MTV have altered many of the values and principles of visual production as well.

■ TABLE 7.1 Stages of the Television/Video Production

However, despite these evolutionary changes in production technology and program styles, all video programs are developed through a process that follows the four stages of design, production, evaluation, and distribution. Table 7.1 describes these different stages of the production process, and Figure 7.2 provides a graphic representation of the various elements of the television production process.

The Design Stage

During the design stage the blueprint for the project is created. Just as in a construction project there is a stage in which aesthetic and technical elements are literally brought to the drawing board to define the look and feel of a structure before the actual building takes place, there is also such a stage in television production. There are two main steps during this stage: defining the need or problem and developing the vision or idea.

■ Defining the Need or Problem

The first step in the development of a project is to identify and define the need or the problem the video program intends to address. Video programs are produced to fulfill different needs. Commercial television broadcast programs need to succeed in the ratings. One recent consequence of this is the proliferation of reality shows which have been extremely popular with the viewers. Public service announcements about the harmful consequences of smoking address the need to change the attitudes or behavior of the audience in relation to smoking. Television commercials are designed to satisfy the advertiser’s need to sell products. As a student in an introductory video production class you may need to design and produce a project to fulfill the requirements for a class assignment.

Any time you begin to work on a production, you should always ask the question “Why does this television program need to be produced?” The answer to this question must be stated very clearly before you begin to produce the program.

■ Developing a Vision or Idea

Once the need for the program and its intentionality have been established (i.e., will the program inform, educate, entertain, or persuade to address a need or solve a problem?), there are two steps to follow next: to begin the process of creative thinking and to write down the idea for the program based on the results of the creative thinking process.

● CREATIVE THINKING During the creative thinking process the producer needs to come up with an idea or a vision for the content and look of the program. There are several well-established techniques that producers use to develop new creative ideas to achieve their objectives. Three of the most common techniques are concept mapping, brainstorming, and focus groups.

Concept Mapping Concept mapping is a tool developed in the 1960s by Joseph Novak of Stanford University. A concept map is a visual representation of the interrelationship between concepts or ideas arranged in a hierarchical way, with the most general concept at the top or center of the map and the less general or more specific ones in branches radiating from the central idea below or to the sides of the main concept. As you can see in this example the central idea is “poverty.”

The concept map diagram in Figure 7.3 is the roadmap or guide for producing a documentary video on the topic of poverty. To the right side of the central concept there are issues related to poverty in some of the developing countries of the world in Latin America, specifically Colombia. On the other side we look at poverty issues closer to home in a developed country, the United States, by focusing on the state of Connecticut and specifically Windham County.

As we return to our central idea, poverty is then related to the issue of democracy and equality, which is seen through the eyes of community organizer and social activist Ron Casanova, a black Puerto Rican raised in New York and once himself homeless. Casanova became a leader among community organizers in Philadelphia, New York, and Connecticut, where they established a network of activists looking for ways to eradicate or alleviate the problems associated with poverty. The documentary concludes with a look at a paradoxical reality: poverty in the richest country in the world—the United States.

This technique is similar to clustering, a type of unstructured free writing that works more by free association of ideas than by the clear relationships between the ideas as in the concept mapping technique. In many cases the terms clustering and concept mapping are used interchangeably.

Here are some basic steps in the creation of concept maps:

• Use unlined paper, and have on hand all your research material, such as books, magazine articles, material printed from websites, and pictures.

• Define the central idea, and place it on the top or at the center of the page. You can also use small pieces of colored paper with geometrical shapes and paste them on your paper.

• Think of a visual structure for your map. Associate this visual structure with the visual potential of your story.

• Link all ideas, words, or phrases with lines or arrows to the central idea or to the branches deriving from that idea. On the connecting lines write words or phrases explaining the relationship between ideas or concepts.

• Write down your ideas as quickly as they come to mind without any editing so as not to interrupt the mapping process. Do not pause to organize or order any material; just write it down.

• When you feel that you are finished, review your material to see whether anything has been left out.

Following are some of the advantages of concept mapping:

• It clearly identifies the central idea by positioning it at the top or center of the page.

• It allows you to see relationships between ideas and the relative importance of each one of them, and all the information is conveniently organized on a single page.

• It allows you to view information from different perspectives and add more information whenever you consider it necessary.

Brainstorming Brainstorming is a group activity (a group size of four to fifteen participants is recommended) that encourages participants to generate possible solutions to a problem without making any value judgment on any of them. Brainstorming—also known as listing when it is performed by a single person—may be seen as a type of concept mapping or clustering, but it relies more on random input such as unrelated wild and exaggerated ideas. The purpose of a brainstorming session is to generate as many ideas or solutions to a problem as possible. If you have ever been asked to decide on a production idea for a group project to fulfill a video production class assignment, you probably used the brainstorming technique in your group meeting.

Here are some steps or rules to help you organize and conduct a brainstorming session:

• Choose a person to coordinate the brainstorming activity, and make sure the person provides a clear introduction explaining the purpose of the session.

• Depending on the complexity of the topic or the nature of the problem, a session could last from ten minutes to two hours or longer if necessary. However, keep in mind that a long session and an overworked group may not produce fresh ideas and may therefore defeat the purpose of the session.

• Define your main topic, and stay focused on that topic.

• Ask one person in the group to write down the ideas as they are called out by the participants. Use a flipchart or a blackboard to write things down so that the entire group can see them. You can also use a recording device to record the session and review it later.

• Encourage participants to make as many contributions as possible without anyone commenting on each other’s contribution. Remember, in the initial brainstorming process, every idea is as valuable as every other.

Once the session is over, the participants can go over the ideas that were presented and combine them as necessary to come up with a solution to the problem or the idea for the television program. In the professional production environment the brainstorming technique is most often used for writing and designing television commercials and advertising campaigns.

Focus Groups As its name suggests, a focus group is an activity in which a group of people—usually from five to twelve representatives of the intended target audience—are gathered together to discuss their views on a particular topic. Although this technique is used mostly for purposes of evaluation (it allows the producer to test ideas that were generated during concept-mapping or brainstorming activities or to test a video program in the context of the audience) it is sometimes also used to generate new ideas or new solutions to a problem.

Once an idea has been generated, it needs to be tested so that the producer can get valuable feedback on content, techniques, choice of talent, or any other feature of the program. In a focus group there is a facilitator who, according to a previously established discussion guide, asks the group a series of questions and records the results for analysis. This technique is commonly used in television commercial and communication campaigns such as those designed to advance public health messages.

Here are some guidelines to help you design and conduct a focus group session:

• Clearly define the objectives, the information needed to achieve them, and how the information will be used.

• Determine who the focus group participants will be. Will they be part of your target audience, people who are familiar with the characteristics of your target audience, or both? In addition, think about an appropriate location to hold the focus group meeting.

• Develop a discussion guide or questionnaire and provide training to the facilitators to avoid bias and to ensure that each of the sessions will be conducted similarly.

• Record the focus session for later review, preferably on videotape. Body language and voice inflection may provide you with valuable feedback on a specific point. Transcribe the recordings.

• Make sure that all of the participants are allowed the opportunity to speak freely and ensure they understand that there is no right or wrong answer or comment.

• Design a method for analysis and interpretation of the transcribed comments, and be prepared to implement your findings.

■ Writing It Down

Next, the producers or a team led by the producer must develop the creative idea, shape it into the form of a video program, and formalize the findings in writing. There are several steps to take during this phase: conceptualization, research, visualization, format, feasibility, and proposal.

● CONCEPTUALIZATION Once the need has been clearly defined, the objectives have been established, and an idea for the production style and content has been chosen, a producer must put together all the elements and refine them into a coherent form. The producer must identify and interpret the creative concept or the “big idea” for the show. A theme that expresses what the story is about is determined, and the decision on how to tell the story is made. The theme (e.g., immigrants’ fears, love on the Internet) is the essence of the story, and the producer (creator) must choose the aesthetic concepts and technical needs that must be met to project his or her artistic vision of the theme to the target audience. During this phase the video program begins to take shape.

● RESEARCH You must learn as much as you can about the subject you will be dealing with so that you are operating from a position of knowledge, not ignorance. In addition, you must identify the resources you will need to have to shape your artistic vision into a video program. Producers regularly draw on resources such as the Internet, libraries, interviews with experts, and visits to potential remote locations.

● VISUALIZATION The mind’s eye that has been active during the creative process determines the visual potential of the story. Creative concepts can be put into drawings or sketches with different visual interpretations of the idea. Symbols, metaphors, visual and aural aesthetics, and their impact on the audience should be considered. Another important consideration is how the issue of continuity will be treated. That is, the aural and visual elements of your story must exhibit an internal consistency throughout the program so that your audience can move through the story without feeling lost.

● FORMAT Format refers to the form in which the program will be presented or packagedfor audience consumption. In the 1940s, when television sets first became available in the United States, most television programs mirrored radio formats. Since then, television programming has evolved into a wide variety of formats that address the various needs and tastes of audiences, program producers, and advertisers.

Even though many of the early television formats such as quiz, music, and variety shows are still very popular, the proliferation of special-interest channels and the development of specialized audience target markets have brought about a variety of new, more complex formats targeted to well-defined audiences. Talk shows, music videos, and reality TV shows are just a few examples of highly successful formats that have appeared in recent years. In addition, with the emergence of digital production and transmission technologies that allow for the transmission of multiple streams of programs in the bandwidth that it now takes to transmit a single program, we should expect that new and highly interactive formats will emerge as this state-of-the-art digital technology becomes more available to U.S. and international audiences.

■ TABLE 7.2 Six Television Program Genres

Table 7.2 presents a classification of formats based on genre. It is important to differentiate between format and genre, as the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The word genre comes from the French word for “class” or “kind.” Definitions of genres are sometimes based on codes of content such as themes or settings, or they can be based on elements such as structure and style. For our purposes we identify six television genres: factual, reality-based, entertainment, infotainment, educational, and persuasive.

● FEASIBILITY This is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the design process. Critical analysis and thorough research will help the producer to determine whether the program is producible. At this point all the previous steps must be reviewed carefully to find any potential production problems that may exist. Make sure that the technical and human resources that are required for the successful completion of the program are within the reach of the producer.

● PROPOSAL A proposal is a written argument designed to persuade your source of funding or production supervisor that your proposed program is worth producing. It should be presented only after serious thinking and planning have taken place and the feasibility of the project has been established. There is no standard format for a proposal, but keep in mind that because the basic objective is to “sell” an idea, you must clearly address the needs of your client or supervisor. The proposal should be brief and concise and include the following information.

Program Title What is the title of your program? Keep it short (two or three words are usually sufficient), and make it interesting. Consider, for example, the following titles: Another Man’s Treasure—a program in which artists scavenge trash from a local garbage facility and fashion it into artworks; Painting the Town—an examination of a group of artists who paint murals that express the values of their community on the walls of public buildings; Art on Wheels—a profile of an art program that is housed in a bus that travels to inner-city neighborhoods to provide after-school art instruction to junior high school children. Consider also that the titles of many of the most popular television programs are often one word long (e.g., Frazier, Seinfeld, Cops).

The title is your first opportunity to grab the attention of the producer and your target audience. If the producer or audience fails to perceive the relevance of the title to their own interests, they may well tune out the rest of your proposal.

Subject and Needs Assessment This section establishes the why of the program. How does your program addresses a particular social need or propose to solve a problem? The proposal should start with a sentence that states the need or the problem and then explains what your program will do to address this need or problem.

Target Audience and Delivery Time (Distribution) Be specific about the audience for which the program is intended. Information about audience needs and desires can be gathered by conducting basic research. It is also important to describe the best time at which your target audience can watch the program or how you intend to distribute your program to your intended audience. For example, a program aimed at school-age children would best be scheduled on a weekday afternoon, after school gets out, or on a weekend morning.

Treatment and Synopsis The terms treatment and synopsis are used interchangeably in many cases, but they may mean different things to producers, writers, or other television production professionals. For our purposes a synopsis is a short summary of the story or show, and a treatment is a brief narrative description of how the program is going to be presented. It should describe the basic program design or style and provide an outline of major components of the format that is chosen.

The length and content of a treatment depend on the program genre. A dramatized program may require that the treatment include descriptions of characters’ personalities and their environment as well as some dialogue, and as a result the treatment may be several pages long.

A magazine program treatment, by contrast, may require only a couple of paragraphs describing the look and feel of the show, the host’s performance characteristics and appearance (appealing to the target audience of the show), and a short sample list of general story topics to be covered. The production method can be described here, but only the most important aesthetic and technical elements should be included. (See Figure 7.4.)

FIGURE 7.4   Sample Treatment

Aesthetic and Technical Considerations Special attention must be paid to these issues. The audiovisual potential of your program must be explored and then addressed in the proposal. Careful thought must be given to the manipulation of the different aesthetic variables, such as lighting, editing, and sound, and also to the technical aspects that will be involved during production and postproduction, such as the type of camera to be used, tape format, and the type of editing system.

Production Schedule This section must include a complete breakdown of production activities. It should include the rehearsal schedule, the actual videotaping dates and times, the postproduction schedule, and a list of the human and technical resources needed to accomplish the task.

Script/Storyboard Depending on the type of program you are trying to produce and the type of organization to which the proposal is being submitted, you should include a full or partial script. A storyboard may be required as well, particularly if you are proposing the production of a public service announcement or commercial campaign. We will discuss scripts and storyboards in more detail later on in the chapter.

Evaluation Most programs are conceived, designed, and produced with a specific goal in mind. The proposal must include a description of the methods that you will employ to perform formative (during the process of production) and summative (at the end of the process of production) evaluation. This is discussed in greater detail at the end of this chapter.

Budget A realistic estimate of all the production costs must be included. You must consider every production aspect and include all preproduction, production, and postproduction costs.

The Production Stage: Aesthetic and Technical Aspects

As we mentioned earlier, the production of a video program is a communication process in which many elements come together to achieve the program’s objective: change attitudes, sell a product, entertain the audience, or whatever it may be. The proper application of production techniques (media aesthetics) and production equipment and technology (technical aspects of production) make up the two major components of the production stage.

■ Aesthetics: Audiovisual Syntax and Semantics

Video programs provide a rich environment for structuring content, interpreting messages, and affecting audiences. The interaction of audio, video, and graphics makes video a highly effective communication tool. As a communication tool video uses a series of aesthetic manipulations that, in the end, will determine a program’s effectiveness. It is imperative that the video producer become well versed in the aesthetic principles that guide every production. The most common methods that are used to describe oral and written communication, syntax and semantics, can also be applied to the video communication process.

Audiovisual syntax refers to the way in which the different production elements—sound, color, text, and images—interrelate to create a defined structure. In creating a video program, different shots, sounds, and transitions are combined to create a scene. Scenes can be combined to create a sequence, and so on. In summary, the purposeful arrangement of small units or elements in a video program form a much larger, meaningful syntactical structure.

Audiovisual semantics refers to the meaning that the arrangement of elements—the syntactical structure—may convey to an audience after the audience is exposed to it. The semantics of a video program depend on the context in which the viewer is exposed to the content and form of the program. These elements determine the structure, which in turn produces meaning for the viewer. Figure 7.5 shows this relationship.

■ Technical Aspects: Preproduction, Production, and Postproduction

● PREPRODUCTION This is the planning phase. Conceptualization has already been done, a proposal has been submitted and approved, and now you are ready to actually begin making your program. Depending on the complexity of the project, there will be different activities to carry out in order to produce a successful program. Among the most common preproduction activities are scripting and/or storyboarding, scheduling, budgeting, selecting the cast and crew, location surveying, and attending to legal matters. All of these activities require managerial skills.

Scripting and/or Storyboarding The script is the map that will guide your production. A script is simply a written, detailed account of what is going to happen in your program. It describes what the viewer will be seeing and hearing and for how long. It is the end product of your design stage. A good script should reflect the connection between the elements of the story—both emotional and technical—and there should be a natural flow between scenes or segments.

Keep in mind that writing for television does not adhere to the general rules of writing for print media. In print, you write for the eye; that is, what you write will be read, so sentence structure and word choice are much different from what they would be if you were writing a script. In television and radio you write for the ear. Your viewers will listen to the performers speak the words you have written. To test your script, read it aloud. Does it sound right? Does it flow easily?

Most television programs are scripted. Producers or writers usually start the process by creating an outline of the program, then a rough draft is developed, and then a final script is written.

Some programs, such as newscasts and episodic series, are fully scripted. Every single spoken word, every audio and video effect, and all other production elements are described in the script. Other programs, such as game shows, interviews, and live sports transmissions, are partially scripted because no one knows exactly what is going to be said or what is going to happen. In these program formats the script outline may contain only the host’s introduction and closing and notes about special transitions or effects.

People who work in television production are accustomed to seeing a variety of standard script formats. They expect the script to look a certain way, with margins, notations, headings, and other conventions conforming to a standard layout. There are a variety of well-established script formats in the television industry, and when creating television scripts, you must use one of the standard script formats.

There are many ways to categorize script formats. For our purposes the most important formats to consider are single-column scripts, multiple-column scripts, and storyboards.

Single-column scripts are also known as the standard screenplay format or film-style script. This format is used for movies, episodic series, and sitcoms and for the dramatic genre in general. (See Figure 7.6.)

Multiple-column scripts are also known as audio/video scripts or the two-column script because in its most common form it is designed around two columns describing audio and video, respectively. This script format is used for news, magazine shows, instructional programs, and documentaries. (See Figure 7.7.) A storyboard presents a visual representation— shot by shot—of the major elements of the story. Storyboards are sometimes used in conjunction with single- and multiple-column scripts and are almost always used in the production planning for commercials and public service announcements. Indeed, sometimes the storyboards are so detailed that there is no need for a written script. Following are descriptions and samples of the script formats and storyboard described above. Table 7.3 shows the categorization of fully scripted formats used in this chapter.

FIGURE 7.6   Single-Column Screenplay Format Script

The single-column screenplay format is used mostly for comedy and dramatic programs. Figure 7.6 shows a sample of a single-column script for a dramatic series. It lists all elements scene by scene, including scene transitions (fade, cut, etc.), scene location, the time of day, characters, dialog, and so on. Each scene is numbered.

The script describes the mood of the characters, the general environment where the action is taking place, and whether the action happens outside (EXT. = Exterior) or inside (INT. = Interior). Dialog is typically indented to separate it from the description of the scene. However notice that no shot descriptions, such as long shot (LS), medium shot (MS), or close up (CU), are presented, nor are transitions (dissolve, wipe, etc.) indicated between shots. As we will see in the chapters on directing, this is because it is up to the director to interpret and visually present the story to the audience.

Two-column scripts are the most common form in the multiple-column script category. The left column of the script describes the video elements of the program, including the type of shot (angle of view) and any character or camera movement. The right column describes the audio elements, including dialogue, voice-over, music, and sound effects.

The multiple-column script format is widely used in a multicamera environment. It is used in newscasts, most magazine shows, and most documentaries. It is also commonly used for partially scripted programs, such as interview programs and panels. Figure 7.7 shows an example of a two-column script.

The storyboard is a visual script, a graphic sequential description of your program as it will appear on the screen. Television production is a collaborative endeavor in which many individuals with different skills work on the same project. A storyboard depicting camera angles, angles of view, and framing and containing information about motion and sound provides a useful blueprint for everyone who is involved in the project.

■ TABLE 7.3 Full Scripted Formats

FIGURE 7.7   Two-Column Script Format

Although the storyboard does not have to be a work of art, it does need to be detailed enough to serve its purpose: to provide a clear picture of what the final program will look like. Storyboards are presented in many different formats. You can choose the format that best suits your needs, but always remember that it must provide a blueprint of what the program will look and feel like. Figure 7.8 and CP-12 show an example of a storyboard.

It is important to note that a variety of commercial software tools are available to help with script formatting and with creating a storyboard. Popular scriptwriting programs include Final Draft, Movie Magic Screenwriter, and Scriptwizard for MS-Word. Popular storyboard programs include Frame Forge 3D, BoardMaster, and Storyboard Quick. Many of the storyboard programs include clip art that allows you to construct the pictorial frame without actually having to draw the images.

Scheduling There are generally three kinds of schedules that need to be made during the preproduction stage:

1. Production team meetings and other logistical activities, such as schedules for location surveys, research, casting sessions, interviews to hire crew members, and rehearsals.

2. A tentative shooting schedule, which is generally worked out with the director after a careful analysis of the script has been performed. It is very important that all personnel involved in the production, including associate or assistant producers, cast, and crew, be kept informed of all scheduling matters at all times. Keep in mind that depending on the genre and format of the program, the shooting may take place in studio or in the field and that scenes may be shot in a different order than the one in which they appear in the script. Scenes that share the same set, location, or lighting scheme are typically grouped together and shot out of the sequence in which they appear in the script. Shooting schedules are closely linked to production costs; therefore the producer’s managerial skills come in very handy during this step.

3. Airtime/broadcast schedule, which in many cases was specified in the proposal and arranged with station managers or executive producers when the production proposal was accepted, or it may simply be determined by station managers or other executives when the program is delivered.

One point that deserves special attention is deadlines, which in general are abundant in television production projects. Many producers use a decidedly low-tech method to keep track of deadlines: They may draw a big chart and hang it on the wall so that they will have it in view at all times. The high-tech solution to the problem is project management software that may help to make scheduling more methodical and reliable.

Budgeting In real life your ability to take a nice vacation may well depend on how well you manage your income, savings, and time. In television production financial planning is extremely important. Financial planning is important in all phases of your project if it is to be successful. An overrun of the budget means big trouble for the producer. The producer must find a way to solve the problem; otherwise, there is the great risk of not finishing the project. Remember, every production requires the investment of many resources that have to be brought together and maximized to make that program a reality. How well you have done your conceptualization, research, scheduling, scripting, and/or storyboarding will have a direct bearing on your budget projections.

There are many ways to develop budgets. The most common approach is to project it according to (a) preproduction, (b) production, (c) post-production, and (d) distribution. Some producers like to create separate categories for the “above the line” costs (performers, writers, producer, and director) and “below the line” costs (technical personnel, production crew). In any case, total costs are computed, and the expected return on the investment (profit) is calculated.

Return on investment does not necessarily have to be calculated in terms of money. For example, for a public health campaign on safe-sex behavior designed to reduce the spread of AIDS, the return on investment could be a real change in adolescents’ sexual behavior brought about by being exposed to the video messages. Or an A grade on a student’s video project could be a much-desired return on the student’s investment of time, creativity, and perhaps a little money.

Figure 7.9 shows a sample of a budget. Keep in mind that even though this budget shows a typical breakdown of a production into its different elements, productions may have more or less complex breakdowns. Again, a variety of software packages are available for budgeting that address the needs of both television and film producers.

Selecting the Cast and Crew Now that you have finished working on your budget, it is time to put together the team that will bring your production to a successful completion. In general, whom you hire will depend on the type and complexity of your production, the size of your budget, and the particular needs of your production with respect to expertise and experience crew members may need to have. For example, if your production involves the use of moving cameras supported by Steadicams or jibs, you will need to hire crew members who are proficient in the operation of these camera support systems.

Assuming that you have a reasonable budget for your production, the best strategy is to hire the best people you can afford. However, remember that, above all, you must create a team. As you search for your performers and crew, keep in mind that besides their artistic and technical skills, they must also have “people skills” and be able to communicate and work as part of a team.

Depending on the type of production you are working on, you may need to conduct auditions for on-camera talent for all or part of your cast. There are several ways to go about casting for independently produced programs or programs that are produced in the context of a college or university video production class. Two popular methods are to place advertisements in local theatrical trade magazines and to post announcements at local colleges and performing arts companies. Perhaps the best way to select your principal crew members, including the director, camera operators, audio engineer, lighting designer, and so on, is to ask your production peers for references to people they know who have the skills to fill the positions you need.

Location Surveys During the conceptualization and visualization phases of production planning you defined the look that you want your program to have. As part of that process, you probably thought about the shooting locations that best would express the spirit of your design.

Finding the right location requires that you evaluate each potential location by looking at it with the eyes of a producer. You will need to assess the location from an aesthetic perspective, to see how the location will contribute to the overall look and feel of your production. In addition, you will need to look at if from a technical perspective to analyze how your production requirements will be met. Can your lighting, audio, and camera requirements be met at this location? Is power available to run the equipment?

We mentioned earlier that there are two basic kinds of production environments, each with different levels of complexity. They are the studio and field production environments. Productions can be done in both locations in either single-camera or multicamera style, and the program can be recorded or transmitted live.

Studio productions are commonly multicamera productions, and most technical elements of the production are under tight control by the video engineering staff and other technical crew members. Remember, the studio lighting and audio systems and the camera and video switcher systems were specifically designed to fulfill the needs of a complex, multicamera production.

Field production presents an entirely different set of circumstances. Most likely, the location that you choose will not provide you with the amount of control (e.g., available lighting system, sound board, and microphone inputs in place) that you find in the studio. The production infrastructure that exists in the studio will have to be assembled from scratch in the field.

To anticipate the production problems that will need to be solved at the location, it is common practice for video producers to conduct a location survey of the proposed remote production site. It is preferable to try to conduct the survey at the same time of day when the shooting is to take place in order to assess the lighting conditions. You want to know the exact position of the sun to avoid backlighting or other problems.

Depending on the complexity of the production and whether it is going to be shot single-camera style or multicamera style, the producer and his or her team will have to account for different items. Following is a list of some basic issues to check out.

• Permits and Logistics. Can you legally gain access to the location? You may need to obtain a permit to shoot in locations such as municipal buildings and state and national parks. If you are shooting on private property, you should obtain a location release from the owner or manager of the site. Do you have an appropriate means of transportation to bring your equipment to the location and keep it there safely? Is sufficient parking available at the remote location? How many people will be in your cast and crew? Will the location have to be catered to provide food and water for everyone? What about on-site communication? Will you use two-way radios? Telephones? Have you checked the weather reports?

• Cameras. How many will be needed? Is this a single-camera or multicamera production? If it is single-camera, will the camera be placed on a tripod, or will it be hand-held? Will you dolly it? If so, is the terrain appropriate for this? Do you have an adequate dolly? What about the camera’s angle of view and the subject’s movements? Are they compatible? Will a long shot maintain the framing and angle of view desired without showing unwanted objects or subjects? If the production will be shot with multiple cameras, is there room enough to effectively position all of the cameras? Where will they be placed so that you can effectively capture the action? On platforms? How high will they be, and how will they be constructed? To maintain continuity of the subject, have you taken into account the 180-degree rule (to be discussed in Chapter 8)? What about video switching? Will you record each camera individually in addition to recording the switched feed from the video switcher? How will the director communicate with the camera operators? You will need an intercommunication system.

• Audio. What kind of sounds will you be capturing? Natural sound? Dialogue? What are the appropriate microphones for obtaining the best sound quality? How many of each kind will you need? Will your audio mixer be able to handle them? Is there a lot of background noise? If so, where is it coming from? Can you do something about it? If not, will special pickup microphones help?

• Lighting. Will there be enough light for the cameras at the time you plan to shoot? If not, how many lighting instruments will you need? Will you be mixing color temperatures? Do you need gels? Or would your production be better served by using HMI lighting instruments that are balanced for daylight color temperature? Is it possible to place the lighting instruments without interfering with the camera shots and at the same time provide adequate lighting? If you are shooting singlecamera, can you keep lighting continuity when you move your camera for a shot from a different angle?

• Power. Will you have access to a power source? If not, do you have a generator? Will you need batteries for certain equipment? What about available AC power at the location? How many electrical circuits are available? Do they supply enough amps to support the wattage needed for your cameras and lights? Where are they located? Do you need AC extension cords?

Legal Matters One of the most important jobs of a producer is to ensure the legality of all matters concerning the production. Given the complexity of many productions it may be necessary for the producer to hire a legal consultant to help resolve any important legal issues. Some of the important legal issues to be concerned about include the following:

• Contracts. The producer must ensure that every member of the production team has a proper contract establishing the person’s rights and obligations. Where applicable, the producer will need to pay special attention to union matters.

• Copyright. One of the worst things that can happen to a producer is to find out after a production has been completed that the final product cannot be aired or released because the producer failed to obtain clearance for copyrighted materials such as music, video clips, and photographs that were used in the program. Laws against copyright violation are being strictly enforced, and the penalties for violating these laws may be harsh.

• Releases. The producer must get releases from every person who appears in the program. (See Figure 7.10.) If that person happens to be a minor, then a release must be obtained from the child’s parent or legal guardian. Also, there must be releases for the locations in which the program was videotaped. (See Figure 7.11.)

●PRODUCTION Most of a producer’s work is done in preproduction. The producer’s role during the production stage varies depending on the type of program (format) being produced and its complexity. For instance, the role of an on-location documentary producer is completely different from that of a news or sitcom producer.

During the production stage, the producer works closely with the director (who takes greater responsibility for the control of the program during this stage) and makes sure that all the production elements (e.g., set, wardrobe, copies of script, talents, technicians, equipment) that were determined during preproduction are in place so that the look and feel of the program will be achieved. One of the most important responsibilities of a producer, regardless of format or complexity, is to make sure that all production schedules and deadlines are met and that the planned length of the program is not compromised.

● THE POSTPRODUCTION STAGE Programs that are going to be edited in postproduction require an additional set of planning steps. Footage that is shot in the field must be logged; that is, a description of each shot and its beginning and end points must be noted. Editing scripts must be developed, and in the case of digital nonlinear editing systems a list of all the footage that needs to be imported into the computer-based nonlinear editing system must be compiled. Postproduction planning is described in more detail in Chapters 10 and 11.

Evaluation and Distribution

Every product that enters the marketplace must be evaluated and distributed. A video production is no different. Each production proposal should include information about how the program will be evaluated, and how it will be delivered to the intended audience.

■ Evaluation

Two types of evaluations are performed in video productions: formative and summative.

Formative evaluation is an assessment of the project that is conducted while the program is being produced. From the initial conceptualization of the video and throughout the production process there is the need to constantly evaluate what is being done to ensure the objectives of your program are being met. Formative evaluation should permeate the whole production process to provide continuous feedback that can be used to adjust the production as changing circumstances or new ideas come into play.

There are many ways to perform formative evaluation. The most common are commentaries by peers, colleagues, or friends; focus groups with members of the intended target audience, experts on the subject, or other video producers; screenings of the program to observe viewers’ reactions; questionnaires; and interviews.

Summative evaluation refers to evaluation that is done after the production has been completed. A producer needs to know whether the program met the goals that were established for the program. For an educational program summative evaluation may involve measuring what viewers learned from the program. Commercial producers might look at the impact the commercial has had on product sales. Entertainment producers might look at the program’s ratings or critical reviews of the program.

■ Distribution

Producers produce programs with the idea that, ultimately, the appropriate target audience will see them. A wide range of outlets is available for program distribution. Depending on the nature of the producing entity—a television network, a university, a nonprofit organization, or whatever it may be—and the program’s content and target audience, a program may be distributed via broadcast or cable television. Programs that are not meant for broadcast or cable distribution may be duplicated and distributed on videotape or DVDs, or they may be posted on a website for viewing on the Internet.