Notes

Notes to the Introduction

1. Based upon accounts provided in A Relay Race to Save Lives During Bandhs, posted by Fungma Fudong and the Saath-Saath Project staff on Thursday, August 30, 2012, http://blog.usaid.gov/2012/08/a-relay-race-to-save-lives-during-bandhs/. Names have been changed and dialogue is fictitious; otherwise, the events occurred as reported.

2. For the purposes of this book, we have classified countries into low-, middle-, and high-income countries. This classification is based on the World Bank’s definitions using 2011 gross national income (GNI) per capita. Low-income countries are those with GNI per capita less than $1,026. We have combined the lower-and upper-middle income groups defined by the World Bank into a single middle-income group. These countries have a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $12,475. High-income countries are those with GNI greater than $12,475. When we use the term developing countries, we are referring to low- and middle-income countries. Although we have classified countries into these large groups, we realize that every country, whether classified as upper-, middle-, or lower-income, will have subpopulations that are wealthy, middle-income, and poor.

Notes to Chapter 1

1. Wang et al. (2012) “Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010”; Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.”

2. Wang et al. (2012) “Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010”; World Health Organization (2009) Investing in Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health: The Case for Asia and the Pacific.

3. Haskell (2003) “Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Lifestyle Interventions: Effectiveness and Efficacy”; World Health Organization (2012) “Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) Fact Sheet”; Mayne (2001) “Nutrient Intake and Risk of Subtypes of Esophageal and Gastric Cancer”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Effect of Daily Aspirin on Risk of Cancer Metastasis: A Study of Incident Cancers During Randomised Controlled Trials”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Short-Term Effects of Daily Aspirin on Cancer Incidence, Mortality, and Non-Vascular Death: Analysis of the Time Course of Risks and Benefits in 51 Randomised Controlled Trials”; Raju et al. (2011) “Effect of Aspirin on Mortality in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease.”

4. Sankaranarayanan et al. (2007) “Effect of Visual Screening on Cervical Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Tamil Nadu, India: A Cluster-Randomised Trial.”

5. Dandona et al. (2002) “Refractive Error in Children in a Rural Population in India.”

6. Patel et al. (2011) “Lay Health Worker Led Intervention for Depressive and Anxiety Disorders in India: Impact on Clinical and Disability Outcomes over 12 Months.”

7. Wang et al. (2012) “Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010”; Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010.”

8. World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund, and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (2011) Global HIV/AIDS Response: Progress Report 2011; World Health Organization (2012) “HIV/AIDS Fact Sheet.”

9. Similar initiatives to reduce malaria deaths such as the President’s Malaria Initiative and Malaria No More improve health outcomes related to development such as the ONE Campaign, and multiple other initiatives and international bodies, such as the World Health Organization, United Nations–affiliated bodies, the Clinton Global Initiative, and the GAVI Alliance (formerly the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisations), among others, have also greatly helped. Improvements in maternal and child health have been supported by many organizations that have worked together, such as GAVI, UNICEF, CIFF (Children’s Investment Ford Foundation), and the Gates Foundation. Investments are coming not just from foreign entities but local governments. Domestic HIV investments by low- and middle-income countries reached US$8.6 billion in 2011—the highest amount ever; Dunham (2008) “Bush Signs Expansion of Global AIDS Programs”; United Nations Development Programme (2011) Towards Human Resilience: Sustaining MDG Progress in an Age of Economic Uncertainty.

10. Zambrano and Seward (2012) Mobile Technologies and Empowerment: Enhancing Human Development through Participation and Innovation; Zuckerman (2009) “Web 2.0 Tools for Development: Simple Tools for Smart People.”

11. Connor, Rafter, and Rodgers (2004) “Do Fixed-Dose Combination Pills or Unit-of-Use Packaging Improve Adherence? A Systematic Review.”

12. Dybul, Piot, and Frenk (2012) “Reshaping Global Health.”

13. Leach-Kemon et al. (2012) “The Global Financial Crisis Has Led to a Slowdown in Growth of Funding to Improve Health in Many Developing Countries”; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2011) Financing Global Health 2011: Continued Growth as MDG Deadline Approaches.

14. Mehta and Shenoy (2011) Infinite Vision: How Aravind Became the World’s Greatest Business Case for Compassion; Vickers (2011) Driving Down the Cost of High-Quality Care: Lessons from the Aravind Eye Care System.

15. International Finance Corporation (2007) The Business of Health in Africa: Partnering with the Private Sector to Improve People’s Health.

16. VisionSpring (2012) “What We Do.”

17. Chuma et al. (2010) “Towards Achieving Abuja Targets: Identifying and Addressing Barriers to Access and Use of Insecticides Treated Nets Among the Poorest Populations in Kenya.”

18. Mugeni, Ngabo, and Humuza (2012) “Community Performance–Based Financing in Health: Incentivizing Mothers and Community Health Workers to Improve Maternal Health Outcomes in Rwanda.”

19. Fairall et al. (2012) “Task Shifting of Antiretroviral Treatment from Doctors to Primary-Care Nurses in South Africa (STRETCH): A Pragmatic, Parallel, Cluster-Randomised Trial.”

20. Wakabi (2008) “Extension Workers Drive Ethiopia’s Primary Health Care.”

21. UNICEF (2012) “Innovations: Uganda.”

22. Ibid.

23. Prata et al. (2011) “Provision of Injectable Contraceptives in Ethiopia Through Community-Based Reproductive Health Agents”; Chibanda et al. (2011) “Problem-Solving Therapy for Depression and Common Mental Disorders in Zimbabwe: Piloting a Task-Shifting Primary Mental Health Care Intervention in a Population with a High Prevalence of People Living with HIV.”

24. W.K. Kellogg Foundation (2004) Logic Model Development Guide. The internal culture is important and defines how an organization operates on a day-to-day basis. Leadership helps develop and maintain the culture, but it is also impacted by the organizational strategy and structure. These components can either create or break down barriers to communication, as well as define the latitude within which employees have to operate. The resource constraints of an organization are also important factors. Both financial and talent resources must be accounted for in order to meet the objectives of an organization. Financial resources are needed to get off the ground and operate, while human resources are needed to run programs and solve problems.

Notes to Chapter 2

1. Williams (2012) “Rice’s Student-Designed Device to Help Babies Breathe Wins More Support.”

2. Brown et al. (2011) “A Hand-Powered, Portable, Low-Cost Centrifuge for Diagnosing Anemia in Low-Resource Settings.”

3. PATH (2012) Annual Report 2011.

4. Byrne and Gerdes (2005) “The Man Who Invented Management: Why Peter Drucker’s Ideas Still Matter”; Drucker (2002) “The Discipline of Innovation.”

5. Davila, Epstein, and Shelton (2013) “Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It.”

6. The academic literature focuses mostly on technological innovations: Henderson and Clark (1990) “Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms”; Christensen and Rosenbloom (1995) “Explaining the Attacker’s Advantage: Technological Paradigms, Organizational Dynamics and the Value Network”; and Abernathy and Utterback (1978) “Patterns of Industrial Innovation.”

7. Some authors have also included the market as an additional dimension to technology to understand innovation (for example, Afuah, Innovation Management [1998]). We believe that focusing on the market unnecessarily restricts the locus of innovation to one piece of the business model.

8. Much of the content in this chapter is drawn from Davila, Epstein, and Shelton (2013) Making Innovation Work: How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It.

9. For the importance of process change, see Pisano (1997) The Development Factory: Unlocking the Potential of Process Innovation.

10. Examples of process improvements are numerous around the quality movement—for example, Cole (1998) “Learning from the Quality Movement: What Did and Didn’t Happen and Why?”; and Juran (1992) Juran on Quality by Design: The New Steps for Planning Quality into Goods and Services.

11. Davila, Epstein, and Shelton (2013) Making Innovation Work.

12. For this model, see Tushman and Anderson (1986) “Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environment.”

13. The idea of incremental innovation has been applied to the technology innovation dimension; see Dewar and Dutton (1986) “The Adoption of Radical and Incremental Innovations: An Empirical Analysis”; Ettlie, Bridges, and O’Keefe (1984) “Organizational Strategy and Structural Differences for Radical versus Incremental Innovation”; and Green, Gavin, and Aiman-Smith (1995) “Assessing a Multidimensional Measure of Radical Innovation.”

14. Incremental innovation is critical to sustain a firm’s position in the market. See Banbury and Mitchell (1995) “The Effect of Introducing Important Incremental Innovations on Market Share and Business Survival.”

15. Spector et al. (2012) “Improving Quality of Care for Maternal and Newborn Health: Prospective Pilot Study of the WHO Safe Childbirth Checklist Program.”

16. Semi-radical innovation is a common way to break away from incremental innovation but still rely on a subset of core competencies (Utterback (1994) Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation: How Companies Can Seize Opportunities in the Face of Technological Change.

17. Pop-Eleches et al. (2011) “Mobile Phone Technologies Improve Adherence to Antiretroviral Treatment in a Resource-Limited Setting: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Text Message Reminders.”

18. Global Health Group and University of California, San Francisco (2012) Clinical Social Franchising Compendium: An Annual Survey of Programs.

19. See Cooper and Smith (1992) “How Established Firms Respond to Threatening Technologies”; Damanpour (1996) “Organizational Complexity and Innovation: Developing and Testing Contingency Models”; and Foster (1986) Innovation: The Attacker’s Advantage. For the high level of unsuccessful radical innovations, see Dougherty and Hardy (1996) “Sustained Product Innovation in Large, Mature Organizations: Overcoming Innovation-to-Organization Problems.”

20. Radical innovation typically comes from architectural changes (Henderson and Clark [1990] “Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms”; Baldwin and Clark [2000] Design Rules: The Power of Modularity); and destroys current competencies (Anderson and Tushman [1990] “Technological Discontinuities and Dominant Designs: A Cyclical Model of Technological Change”; Tushman and Anderson [1986] “Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environment”; and Tushman and Murmann [1998] “Dominant Designs, Technology Cycles, and Organizational Outcomes”).

21. These game changers have also been called technological discontinuities (Ehrenberg [1995] “On the Definition and Measurement of Technological Discontinuities.”

22. Bhattacharyya (2010) “Innovative Health Service Delivery Models in low- and Middle-Income Countries: What Can We Learn from the Private Sector?”; Macke, Misra, and Sharma (2003) “Jaipur Foot: Challenging Convention”; Kanani (2011) “Jaipur Foot: One of the Most Technologically Advanced Social Enterprises in the World”; personal communication with D.R. Mehta, Founder and Chief Patron, BMVSS, December 18, 2012.

23. Radical innovation is frequently associated with startup companies that upset the current industry structure. For the problems facing incumbents when threatened by an external radical innovation, see Day and Schoemaker (2000) “Avoiding the Pitfalls of Emerging Technologies.”

24. Radical innovation also has a larger probability of being born in the interfaces of current business units requiring the participation of these various units—a concept called white spaces (Hamel and Prahalad [1994] Competing for the Future)—with a significant chance of shifting the current strategy. The need for resources from various units and the strategic disruptive nature are labeled as the “scope” and “reach” of the innovation (Burgelman and Doz (2001) “The Power of Strategic Integration”).

25. See Radjou, Prabhu, and Ahuja (2012) Jugaad Innovation: Think Frugal, Be Flexible, Generate Breakthrough Growth; Sehgal, Dehoff, and Panneer (2010) The Importance of Frugal Engineering.

26. See Govindarajan and Trimble (2012) Reverse Innovation: Create Far from Home, Win Everywhere; and Immelt, Govindarajan, and Trimble (2009) How GE Is Disrupting Itself.

27. Govindarajan and Trimble (2012) Reverse Innovation.

28. Stevenson (1983) “A Perspective on Entrepreneurship.”

29. Stevenson (2000) “Why Entrepreneurship Has Won!”

30. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (2008) “Creating an Enabling Environment for Private Sector Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.”

31. Parker (2006) The Life Cycle of Entrepreneurial Ventures.

32. Chen and Ravallion (2010) “The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty.”

33. Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (2011) Advancing Financial Access for the World’s Poor: Annual Report 2011.

34. De Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff (2008) “Returns to Capital in Microenterprises: Evidence from a Field Experiment.”

35. Hammond et al. (2007) The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Base of the Pyramid.

36. Prahalad (2010) Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits.

37. Wakabi (2008) “Extension Workers Drive Ethiopia’s Primary Health Care”; Bilal et al. (2011) “Health Extension Workers in Ethiopia: Improved Access and Coverage for the Rural Poor.”

38. VisionSpring (2012) “What We Do.”

39. Katayama (2010) “How Health Care Nonprofit Living Goods Learned a Lesson from Avon Ladies.”

40. Fertig and Tzaras (2005) What Works: Heathstore’s Franchise Approach to Healthcare.

41. Ibid.; Berk and Adhvaryu (2012) “The Impact of a Novel Franchise Clinic Network on Access to Medicines and Vaccinations in Kenya: A Cross-Sectional Study”; personal communication with Greg Starbird, CEO, The HealthStore Foundation, December 20, 2012.

Notes to Chapter 3

1. Ranson et al. (2010) “Priorities for Research into Human Resources for Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.”

2. World Health Organization (2011) mHealth: New Horizons for Health Through Mobile Technologies.

3. E Health Point (2012) “E Health Point”; personal communication with Ashok Mehta, Head, HR & Administration, HealthPoint Services India, January 1, 2013.

4. Riders for Health, “Our Impact.”

5. World Bicycle Relief (2007) Impact of Bicycle Distribution on Tsunami Recovery in Sri Lanka, Final Report.

6. World Bicycle Relief, Impact; Personal communication with Dave Neiswander, Africa Director, World Bicycle Relief, December 13, 2012.

7. Bicycling Empowerment Network (BEN) Nambia, “Strengthening the Grassroots Response to HIV/AIDS.”

8. Riders for Health, “Our Approach.”

9. AID Village Clinics is no longer in operation; AID Village Clinics, “Africa Infectious Disease Village Clinics: Our Mission”; personal communication with Ann Lurie, Founder AID Village Clinics, Inc., December 13, 2012.

10. Spector et al. (2012) “Improving Quality of Care for Maternal and Newborn Health: Prospective Pilot Study of the WHO Safe Childbirth Checklist Program.”

11. World Health Organization and World Alliance for Patient Safety (2008) Implementation Manual Surgical Safety Checklist: Safe Surgery Saves Lives.

12. Haynes et al. (2009) “A Surgical Safety Checklist to Reduce Morbidity and Mortality in a Global Population.”

13. World Health Organization (2012) “Family Planning Fact Sheet.”

14. Prata et al. (2008) “Saving Maternal Lives in Resource-Poor Settings: Facing Reality.”

15. UNICEF (2010) Facts for Life.

16. Roberts et al. (2001) “Keeping Clean Water in a Malawi Refugee Camp: A Randomized Intervention Trial.”

17. Choi et al. (1995) “The Effectiveness of Insecticide-Impregnated Bed Nets in Reducing Cases of Malaria Infection: A Meta-Analysis of Published Results.”

18. Haskell (2003) “Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Lifestyle Interventions: Effectiveness and Efficacy”; Mayne (2001) “Nutrient Intake and Risk of Subtypes of Esophageal and Gastric Cancer”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Effect of Daily Aspirin on Risk of Cancer Metastasis”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Short-Term Effects of Daily Aspirin on Cancer Incidence, Mortality, and Non-Vascular Death”; Raju et al. (2011) “Effect of Aspirin on Mortality in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease.”

19. Sweat et al. (2012) “Effects of Condom Social Marketing on Condom Use in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 1990–2010.”

20. Bertrand et al. (2011) “Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision: A Qualitative Study Exploring the Challenges of Costing Demand Creation in Eastern and Southern Africa.”

21. World Health Organization (2012) “Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention.”

22. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008–09.

23. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008–09; Kenya Ministry of Health National AIDS and STI Control Programme (2009) Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey 2007 Final Report.

24. Mwandi et al. (2011) “Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision: Translating Research into the Rapid Expansion of Services in Kenya, 2008–2011.”

25. Jokhio, Winter, and Cheng (2005) “An Intervention Involving Traditional Birth Attendants and Perinatal and Maternal Mortality in Pakistan.”

26. This data was obtained from Figure 2 of Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010”; World Health Organization (2006) Oral Rehydration Salts: Production of the New ORS; Munos, Walker, and Black (2010) “The Effect of Oral Rehydration Solution and Recommended Home Fluids on Diarrhoea Mortality.”

27. Beverage Industry (2011) “Sports Drink Sales Get into Shape.”

28. World Health Organization (2006) Stop The Global Epidemic of Chronic Disease: A Practical Guide to Successful Advocacy.

29. Ibid.

30. Teklehaimanot, Sachs, and Curtis (2007) “Malaria Control Needs Mass Distribution of Insecticidal Bednets”; Curtis et al. (2003) “Scaling-Up Coverage with Insecticide-Treated Nets Against Malaria in Africa: Who Should Pay?”

31. Khatib (2008) “Markets, Voucher Subsidies and Free Nets Combine to Achieve High Bed Net Coverage in Rural Tanzania.”

32. Ibid.

33. Bellows, Bellows, and Warren (2011) “Systematic Review: The Use of Vouchers for Reproductive Health Services in Developing Countries: Systematic Review.”

34. Meuwissen et al. (2006) “Does a Competitive Voucher Program for Adolescents Improve the Quality of Reproductive Health Care? A Simulated Patient Study in Nicaragua.”

35. Ekirapa-Kiracho (2011) “Increasing Access to Institutional Deliveries Using Demand and Supply Side Incentives: Early Results from a Quasi-Experimental Study: An Innovative Approach to Building Capacity at an African University to Improve Health Outcomes.”

36. Ahmed and Khan (2011) “Is Demand-Side Financing Equity Enhancing? Lessons from a Maternal Health Voucher Scheme in Bangladesh.”

37. Iqbal (2009) “Reaching the Poor with Performance-Based Payment for Safe Delivery Services in Rural Bangladesh: Potential of Performance-Based Payment.”

38. United Nations (2011) The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011.

Notes to Chapter 4

1. Mangham and Hanson (2010) “Scaling Up in International Health: What Are the Key Issues?”

2. Samoff, Sebatane, and Dembélé (2001) “Scaling Up by Focusing Down: Creating Space to Expand Education Reform.”

3. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries: A Report from the Field.”

4. Clark et al. (2012) “Scaling Social Impact: A Literature Toolkit for Funders.”

5. Bradach (2003) “Going to Scale: The Challenge of Replicating Social Programs.”

6. La France et al. (2006) Scaling Capacities: Supports for Growing Impact.

7. Bradach (2003) “Going to Scale”; Crutchfield and McLeod (2007) “Forces for Good: The Six Practices of High-Impact Nonprofits.”

8. Dees, Anderson, and Wei-Skillern (2004) “Scaling Social Impact: Strategies for Spreading Social Innovation.”

9. Crutchfield and McLeod (2007) “Forces for Good”; Bloom and Dees (2008) “Cultivate Your Ecosystem.”

10. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

11. This section relies heavily on Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

12. Care International (2011) Annual Report 2011.

13. Colclough (1998) “Marketizing Education and Health in Developing Countries: Miracle or Mirage?”

14. Oxfam (2001) “Education: Tackling the Global Crisis.”

15. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

16. Chib (2008) Information and Communication Technologies for Health Care: Midwife Mobile-Phone Project in Aceh Besar.

17. Glennan et al. (2004) “Expanding the Reach of Education Reforms: Perspectives from Leaders in the Scale-Up of Educational Interventions.”

18. Chimombo (2005) “Quantity Versus Quality in Education: Case Studies in Malawi.”

19. Ritzer (1993) “The McDonaldization of Society”; Chimombo (2005) “Quantity Versus Quality in Education: Case Studies in Malawi.”

20. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

21. Quint et al. (2005) The Challenge of Scaling Up Educational Reform: Findings and Lessons from First Things First; Cooper, Slavin, and Madden (1998) “Success for All: Improving the Quality of Implementation of Whole-School Change through the Use of a National Reform Network”; Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

22. Kantamara, Hallinger, and Jatiket (2006) “Scaling-Up Education Reform in Thailand: Context, Collaboration, Networks, and Change”; Fullen (2007) “The New Meaning of Education Change.”

23. Fullan (2000) “The Return of Large-Scale Reform”; Fullan (2009) “The Role of Leadership in the Promotion of Knowledge Management in Schools.”

24. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries”; Elmore (1996) “Getting to Scale with Good Educational Practice.”

25. Commonwealth Secretariat (2005) Promising Practices and Implications for Scaling Up Girls’ Education; Samoff, Sebatane, and Dembélé (2001) “Scaling Up by Focusing Down: Creating Space to Expand Education Reform.”

26. Bodilly and Augustine (2008) “Revitalizing Arts Education Through Community-Wide Coordination”; Kirby, Berends, and Naftel (2001) “Implementation in a Longitudinal Sample of New American Schools: Four Years into Scale-Up.”

27. Glennan et al. (2004) “Expanding the Reach of Education Reforms: Perspectives from Leaders in the Scale-Up of Educational Interventions”; Datnow, Hubbard, and Mehan (2002) “Extending Educational Reform: From One School to Many.”

28. BRAC Communication (2012) “Stay Informed: BRAC at a Glance”; personal communication with Scott MacMillan, Communications Manager, BRAC USA, December 13, 2012.

29. Bloom and Chatterji (2009) “Scaling Social Entrepreneurial Impact.”

30. Epstein and Yuthas (2012) “Scaling Effective Education for the Poor in Developing Countries.”

31. Ibid.

32. Reich (2000) Public-Private Partnerships for Public Health; Nishtar (2004) “Public-Private ‘Partnerships’ in Health: A Global Call to Action.”

33. Ibid.; Atun et al. (2012) “Innovative Financing for Health: What Is Truly Innovative?”

34. GAVI Alliance (2011) “Progress Report 2011”; GAVI Alliance (2012) “GAVI’s Impact: Saving Lives.”

35. Fertig and Tzaras (2005) What Works: HealthStore’s Franchise Approach to Healthcare.

36. Lehr (2008) Microfranchising at the Base of the Pyramid.

37. Ibid.

38. Sireau (2011) Microfranchising: How Entrepreneurs Are Building a New Road to Development.

39. Fertig and Tzaras (2007) “Franchising Health Care for Kenya: The Health-Store Foundation Model”; Fairbourne, Gibson, and Gibb Dyer Jr. (2008) MicroFranchising: Creating Wealth at the Bottom of the Pyramid.

Notes to Chapter 5

1. Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.”

2. Ibid.

3. We recognize that men also play important roles in child rearing. However, globally, particularly in developing countries, this role is almost always assumed by a woman; Dybul (2012) “Finding Common Ground to Save the Lives of Women and Children and Create Happy, Healthy Families.”

4. WHO (2010) Maternal Health: Investing in the Lifeline of Healthy Societies & Economies; UNICEF (2007) The State of the World’s Children 2007.

5. Quisumbing, Haddad, and Peña (2001) “Are Women Overrepresented among the Poor? An Analysis of Poverty in Ten Developing Countries”; WHO (2010) Maternal Health: Investing in the Lifeline of Healthy Societies & Economies.

6. Wang et al. (2012) “Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010”; Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010.”

7. Guttmacher Institute (2002) “Family Planning Can Reduce High Infant Mortality Levels.”

8. Setty-Venugopal and Upadhyay (2002) “Birth Spacing: Three to Five Saves Lives”; Rutstein (2005) “Effects of Preceding Birth Intervals on Neonatal, Infant and Under-Five Years Mortality and Nutritional Status in Developing Countries: Evidence from the Demographic and Health Surveys.”

9. Trussell (2011) Contraceptive Efficacy.

10. Singh and Darroch (2012) Adding it Up: Costs and Benefits of Contraceptive Services: Estimates for 2012; Creanga et al. (2011) “Low Use of Contraception among Poor Women in Africa: An Equity Issue.”

11. Sedgh et al. (2012) “Induced Abortion: Incidence and Trends Worldwide from 1995 to 2008.”

12. WHO (2010) Countdown to 2015: Maternal, Newborn, and Child Survival.

13. UNICEF (2007) The State of the World’s Children 2007.

14. Prata et al. (2012) “New Hope: Community-Based Misoprostol Use to Prevent Postpartum Haemorrhage.”

15. Wang et al. (2012) “Age-Specific and Sex-Specific Mortality in 187 Countries, 1970–2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010”; Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010”; World Health Organization (2012) “Children: Reducing Mortality Fact Sheet.”

16. WHO (2005) World Health Report 2005: Make Every Mother and Child Count.

17. UNICEF (2012) The State of the World’s Children 2012.

18. This data was obtained from Figure 2, Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010.”

19. UNICEF and WHO (2009) Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done; WHO (2009) “More Research Needed into Childhood Diarrhea.”

20. Sobsey et al. (2008) “Point-of-Use Household Drinking Water Filtration: A Practical, Effective Solution for Providing Sustained Access to Safe Drinking Water in the Developing World”; Hoffman (2009) “Lifestraw Saves Those without Access to Clean Drinking Water.” Other water purification systems include P&G’s Pur, Unilever’s Pureit, and Tata’s Swach, which are simply filters that clean the water that is passed through them.

21. Economist (2010) “First Break All the Rules: The Charms of Frugal Innovation.”

22. General Electric (2010) Healthymagination 2010 Annual Report.

23. Coca-Cola (2012) “Partnership with DEKA R&D to Help Bring Clean Water to Communities in Need”; personal communication with Derk Hendriksen, General Manager, Coca-Cola Company DEKA Project, December 18, 2012.

24. WHO, UNICEF, and World Bank (2009) State of the World’s Vaccines and Immunization.

25. Ibid.

26. GAVI (2010) GAVI Alliance Progress Report 2010.

27. Ibid.

28. WHO, UNICEF, and World Bank (2009) State of the World’s Vaccines and Immunization.

29. Frontline Health Workers Coalition (2012) “Frontline Health Workers: The Best Way to Save Lives, Accelerate Progress on Global Health, and Help Advance U.S. Interests.”

30. WHO (2009) Monitoring Emergency Obstetric Care: A Handbook.

31. Prata et al. (2012) “Training Traditional Birth Attendants to Use Misoprostol and an Absorbent Delivery Mat in Home Births.”

32. UNDP (2011) Human Development Report 2011: Sustainability and Equality, A Better Future for All.

33. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2012) Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2011.

34. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2001) Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2000; El-Saharty et al. (2009) Ethiopia: Improving Health Service Delivery.

35. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (2012) Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 2011.

36. Health Logistics Quarterly (2011) “USAID Deliver Project Provides Technical Assistance to the Pharmaceutical Fund and Supply Agency (PFSA).”

37. Bilal et al. (2011) “Health Extension Workers in Ethiopia: Improved Access and Coverage for the Rural Poor”; Ramundo (2012) “The Female ‘Army’ Leading Ethiopia’s Health Revolution”; personal communication with John Kraemer, Assistant Professor, Georgetown School of Nursing and Health Studies, December 16, 2012.

38. Verpoorten (2005) “The Death Toll of the Rwandan Genocide: A Detailed Analysis for Gikongoro Province.”

39. United Nations Populations Fund Rwanda (2011) Maternal Mortality Reduction Programme in Rwanda; WHO, UNICEF, and UNFPA (2004) Maternal Mortality in 2000.

40. United Nations Populations Fund Rwanda (2011) Maternal Mortality Reduction Programme in Rwanda.

41. Holmes (2010) “Rwanda: An Injection of Hope.”

42. National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (2007) Millennium Development Goals Country Report 2007.

43. Mugeni, Ngabo, and Humuza (2011) “Community Performance-Based Financing in Health: Incentivizing Mothers and Community Health Workers to Improve Maternal Health Outcomes in Rwanda.”

44. Joint Learning Network for Universal Health Coverage, “Rwanda: Mutuelles de Santé.”

45. Gertler and Vermeersch (2012) Using Performance Incentives to Improve Health Outcomes.

46. Ibid.

47. WHO (2012) Classifying Health Workers: Mapping Occupations to the International Standard Classification.

48. Makokha (2011) “Kenya: State Bans Traditional Birth Attendants in Matungu.”

49. Masina (2011) “Debate Rages Over Traditional Birth Assistants U-Turn in Malawi”; Prata et al. (2012) “Training Traditional Birth Attendants to Use Misoprostol and an Absorbant Delivery Mat in Home Births”; Wilson et al. (2011) “Effectiveness of Strategies Incorporating Training and Support of Traditional Birth Attendants on Perinatal and Maternal Mortality: Meta-Analysis.”

50. Byrne and Morgan (2011) “How the Integration of Traditional Birth Attendants with Formal Health Systems Can Increase Skilled Birth Attendance.”

51. Zafar Ullah et al. (2006) “Government–NGO Collaboration: The Case of Tuberculosis in Bangladesh.”

52. Despite the high rates of maternal mortality in Bangladesh, rates have decreased from 400 per 100,000 live births in 2000 to 240 in 2010; World Health Organization (2012) World Health Statistics 2012.

53. The Global Health Group (2011) Clinical Social Franchising Case Study Series: Smiling Sun Franchise Program Bangladesh; Rannan-Eliya (2010) Bangladesh National Health Accounts, 1997–2007; World Bank (2004) Private Sector Assessment for Health, Nutrition and Population (HNP) in Bangladesh.

54. The Global Health Group (2011) Clinical Social Franchising Case Study Series: Smiling Sun Franchise Program Bangladesh; World Bank (2004) Private Sector Assessment for Health, Nutrition and Population (HNP) in Bangladesh.

55. The Global Health Group (2011) Clinical Social Franchising Case Study Series: Smiling Sun Franchise Program Bangladesh.

56. The Global Health Group (2012) Clinical Social Franchising Compendium.

57. The Global Health Group (2011) Clinical Social Franchising Case Study Series: Smiling Sun Franchise Program Bangladesh.

58. Ibid.

59. Health Keepers was developed by Freedom From Hunger.

60. Health Unbound, “MAMA: Mobile Alliance for Maternal Action”; Baby-Center, “Mobile Health.”

61. Ibid.

62. General Electric (2010) Healthymagination 2010 Annual Report.

Notes to Chapter 6

1. Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010”; Globocan (2008) “Cervical Cancer Incidence, Mortality, and Prevalence Worldwide in 2008.”

2. Sellors and Sankaranarayanan (2003) “Treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia by cryotherapy.”

3. Baseman and Koutsky (2005) “The Epidemiology of Human Papillomavirus Infections.”

4. Kitchener, Castle, and Cox (2006) “Achievements and Limitations of Cervical Cytology Screening”; Kreiss et al. (1992) “Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Human Papillomavirus, and Cervical Intraepithelian Neoplasia in Nairobi Prostitutes.”

5. Sellors and Sankaranarayanan (2003) “Treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia by cryotherapy.”

6. Parham et al. (2006) “Prevalence and Predictors of Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions of the Cervix in HIV-Infected Women in Lusaka, Zambia.”

7. Ibid.

8. Groesbeck Parham, personal communication.

9. CIDRZ, “Training.”

10. Groesbeck Parham, personal communication.

11. Ibid.

12. Dr. Parham was joined by a leadership team of Zambian health providers, including Dr. Mulindi Mwanahamuntu, head of Gynecology at the University Teaching Hospital at the University of Zambia; Dr. Sharon Kampambwe, the team’s lead physician-administrator; Dr. Kennedy Lishimpi, the director of the Cancer Diseases Hospital; and the nursing team.

13. Pink Ribbon Red Ribbon, “About the Partnership.”

14. JHPIEGO, an NGO affiliated with Johns Hopkins, began work on VIA in Zimbabwe in 1995. It also does work in Burkina Faso and Haiti. Work was done even earlier in South Africa, India, Italy, and the U.S. (visual inspection of the uterine cervix with acetic acid). Johns Hopkins worked in Thailand. Partners in Health worked in Haiti and El Salvador, Lestho, Malawi, and Rwanda. Efforts are currently under way in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Botswana, Ghana, Nigeria, India, Vietnam, and Haiti, among others.

15. Only a minority of these cases will be positive in HIV-negative women, requiring follow-up with VIA. Results from samples collected by women on themselves are nearly as good as those collected by health care providers. Currently, however, this project is not approved for self-collection: Qiao et al. (2008) “A New HPV-DNA Test for Cervical-Cancer Screening in Developing Regions: A Cross-Sectional Study of Clinical Accuracy in Rural China”; personal communication with Irma Alfaro-Beitz, Sr., Director Global Health, Qiagen Inc., December 18, 2012; and with Jose Jeronimo, Associate Director, PATH, December 16, 2012.

16. GAVI Alliance (2012) “More Than 30 Million Girls to Be Immunised with HPV Vaccines by 2020 with GAVI Support.”

17. Groesbeck Parham, personal communication.

18. WHO (2011) Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic Update and Health Sector Progress Towards Universal Access: Progress Report 2011.

19. WHO (2012) “HIV/AIDS Factsheet”; Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010.”

20. WHO (2012) “HIV/AIDS Factsheet”; WHO (2011) Global HIV/AIDS Response: Epidemic Update and Health Sector Progress Towards Universal Access: Progress Report 2011.

21. WHO (2012) “HIV/AIDS Factsheet”; WHO (2011) Global HIV/AIDS Response Epidemic Update and Health Sector Progress towards Universal Access; UNAIDS (2011) HIV AIDS: How to Get to Zero: Faster. Smarter. Better.

22. Marseille, Hofmann, and Kahn (2002) “HIV Prevention before HAART in Sub-Saharan Africa.”

23. Connor, Rafter, and Rodgers (2004) “Do Fixed-Dose Combination Pills or Unit-of-Use Packaging Improve Adherence? A Systematic Review.”

24. UNAIDS (2012) Together We Will End AIDS.

25. Topp et al. (2010) “Strengthening Health Systems at Facility-Level: Feasibility of Integrating Antiretroviral Therapy into Primary Health Care Services in Lusaka, Zambia.”

26. Pfeiffer et al. (2010) “Integration of HIV/AIDS Services into African Primary Health Care: Lessons Learned for Health System Strengthening in Mozambique: A Case Study.”

27. Topp et al. (2012) “Integrating HIV Treatment with Primary Care Outpatient Services: Opportunities and Challenges from a Scaled-up Model in Zambia.”

28. Callaghan, Ford, and Schneider (2010) “A Systematic Review of Task-Shifting for HIV Treatment and Care in Africa.”

29. Robinson (2001) “Nkosi Johnson.”

30. Lester et al. (2010) “Effects of a Mobile Phone Short Message Service on Antiretroviral Treatment Adherence in Kenya (Weltel Kenya): A Randomised Trial”; Pop-Eleches et al. (2011) “Mobile Phone Technologies Improve Adherence to Antiretroviral Treatment in a Resource-Limited Setting: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Text Message Reminders”; WHO (2011) mHealth: New Horizons for Health through Mobile Technologies; Piette et al. (2012) “Impacts of e-Health on the Outcomes of Care in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Where Do We Go from Here?”

31. United Nations Maternal Health Task Force and Global Health Visions (2012) UN Commission on Life-Saving Commodities for Women and Children: Country Case Studies; Qiang et al. (2012) Mobile Applications for the Health Sector.

32. Novartis, “SMS for Life.”

33. Barrington et al. (2010) “SMS for Life: A Pilot Project to Improve Anti-Malarial Drug Supply Management in Tanzania Using Standard Technology.”

34. Sudio et al. (2012) “The Magnitude and Trend of Artemether-Lumefantrine Stock-outs at Public Health Facilities in Kenya 2012.”

35. Ibrahim (2009) Health Systems, Information Flows, and Technology Choices: The Promise of eHealth in Africa.

36. Harris, Stevens, and Morris (2009) “Keeping It Real: Combating the Spread of Fake Drugs”; WHO (2012) Survey of the Quality of Selected Antimalarial Medicines Circulating in Six Countries of Sub-Saharan Africa.

37. Hopkins et al. (2008) Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Malaria at Sites of Varying Transmission Intensity in Uganda”; Makuwa et al. (2002) “Reliability of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for HIV Variant Infection”; Lien et al. (2000) “Evaluation of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for the Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Types 1 and 2, Hepatitis B Surface Antigen, and Syphilis in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam”; Dinnes et al. (2007) “A Systematic Review of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for the Detection of Tuberculosis Infection”; Clement, Dewint, and Leroux-Roels (2002) “Evaluation of a New Rapid Test for the Combined Detection of Hepatitis B Virus Surface Antigen and Hepatitis B Virus E Antigen.”

38. Mavandadi et al. (2012) “A Mathematical Framework for Combining Decisions of Multiple Experts toward Accurate and Remote Diagnosis of Malaria Using Tele-Microscopy.”

Notes to Chapter 7

1. Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010”; WHO (2011) Global Status Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010.

2. Bloom et al. (2011) The Global Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases.

3. Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010”; WHO (2011) “Fact Sheet: The Top 10 Causes of Death”; Mackay and Mensah (2004) The Atlas of Heart Disease and Stroke.

4. Haskell (2003) “Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Lifestyle Interventions: Effectiveness and Efficacy”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Effect of Daily Aspirin on Risk of Cancer Metastasis”; Rothwell et al. (2012) “Short-Term Effects of Daily Aspirin on Cancer Incidence, Mortality, and Non-Vascular Death”; Raju et al. (2011) “Effect of Aspirin on Mortality in the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease”; WHO (2007) Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Guidelines for Assessment and Management of Cardiovascular Risk.

5. Christakis (2007) “The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years”; Biglan et al. (1995) “Peer and Parental Influences on Adolescent Tobacco Use.”

6. Lewin et al. (2010) “Lay Health Workers in Primary and Community Health Care for Maternal and Child Health and the Management of Infectious Disease.”

7. Haines et al. (2007) “Achieving Child Survival Goals: Potential Contribution of Community Health Workers.”

8. India Knowledge@Wharton (2010) “Narayana Hrudayalaya: A Model for Accessible, Affordable Health Care?”

9. Ibid.; Clover (2012) “’In 10 Years’ Time, Doctors Will Require a Second Opinion from a Computer.”

10. Kothandaraman and Mookerjee (2007) Case Study: Healthcare for All: Narayana, Hrudayalaya, Bangalore; Rego and Bhandary (2006) “New model: A social entrepreneur changes the landscape.”

11. Salter (2012) “The World’s 50 Most Innovative Companies: Narayana Hruduyalaya Hospitals”; India Knowledge@Wharton (2010) “Narayana Hrudayalaya.”

12. Salter (2012) “The World’s 50 Most Innovative Companies.”

13. Kothandaraman and Mookerjee (2007) Case Study: Healthcare for All; Salter (2012) “The World’s 50 Most Innovative Companies”; Narayana Hrudayalaya Hospitals, “Telemedicine.”

14. Salter (2012) “The World’s 50 Most Innovative Companies.”

15. Kothandaraman and Mookerjee (2007) Case Study: Healthcare for All.

16. Ascension Health (2012) “Narayana Hrudayalaya Hospitals Team with Ascension Health Alliance to Build Health City at Grand Cayman.”

17. Kothandaraman and Mookerjee (2007) Case Study: Healthcare for All.

18. Aravind Eye Care System “Clinical Services”: Vickers (2011) Driving Down the Cost of High-Quality Care: Lessons from the Aravind Eye Care System.

19. Vickers (2011) Driving Down the Cost of High-Quality Care.

20. National Eye Institute and Lions Clubs International Foundation (2008) NEI 2005 Survey of Public Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices Related to Eye Health and Disease.

21. WHO (2012) Global Data on Visual Impairments 2010.

22. Gordois, Pezzullo, and Cutler (2010) “The Global Economic Cost of Visual Impairment.”

23. WHO (2012) “Visual Impairment and Blindness Fact Sheet.”

24. VisionSpring, “VisionSpring at a Glance.”

25. VisionSpring, “The Vision Entrepreneur.”

26. VisionSpring, “Partners: BRAC.”

27. The Global Health Group (2012) Clinical Social Franchising Compendium.

28. Glenton et al. (2010) “The Female Community Health Volunteer Programme in Nepal: Decision Makers’ Perceptions of Volunteerism, Payment and Other Incentives”; USAID (2009) A Vision for Health: Performance-Based Financing in Rwanda.

29. WHO (2012) “Depression Fact Sheet.”

30. Murray et al. (2012) “Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) for 291 Diseases and Injuries in 21 Regions, 1990–2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.”

31. Lozano et al. (2012) “Global and Regional Mortality from 235 Causes of Death for 20 Age Groups in 1990 and 2010.”

32. Ibid.

33. Patel et al. (2010) “Effectiveness of an Intervention Led by Lay Health Counsellors for Depressive and Anxiety Disorders in Primary Care in Goa, India (MANAS): A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial.”

34. Rahman et al. (2008) “Cognitive Behaviour Therapy-Based Intervention by Community Health Workers for Mothers with Depression and Their Infants in Rural Pakistan: A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial.”

35. Eaton et al. (2011) “Scale Up of Services for Mental Health in Low-Income and Middle-Income Countries”; Manandhar et al. (2004) “Effect of a Participatory Intervention with Women’s Groups on Birth Outcomes in Nepal: A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial.”

36. Bing et al. (2007) “HIV/AIDS Behavioral Surveillance among Angolan Military Men”; Bing et al. (2008) “Evaluation of a Prevention Intervention to Reduce HIV Risk among Angolan Soldiers.”

37. Personal communication, Ahmed Abajobir, Country Director, Drew Cares International, Rwanda, January 14, 2013.

Notes to Chapter 8

1. Economist (2012) “The Path through the Fields.”

2. Deutsche Bank (2007) Microfinance: An Emerging Investment Opportunity.

3. W.K. Kellogg Foundation (2004) W.K. Kellogg Foundation Logic Model Development Guide.

Notes to Chapter 9

1. Economist (2011) “Africa’s Impressive Growth.”

2. Personal communication with Gina L. Tesla, Director of Corporate Citizenship Initiatives, IBM, December 20, 2012.

3. Personal communication with Heather Anderson, Vice President of Programs, Global Health Corps, December 19, 2012.