List of Figures

Figure 1.1 The legacy of 30 years of commercial nuclear power in the United States including 30 years of fission products that are of little value and sufficient stockpiled fissionable fuel to continue to produce electrical power at the same rate for another 4350 years. 5
Figure 1.2 Typical composition of oil. 18
Figure 1.3 Year 2000 oil flow in million barrels per day. 19
Figure 1.4 Historic US oil prices. 20
Figure 1.5 US imports of petroleum. 20
Figure 1.6 World oil reserves by region. Estimates of Canadian reserves by Oil & Gas Journal in 2003 are much higher than previous years—they likely include easily recovered oil sands. 21
Figure 1.7 US Energy consumption by source. 22
Figure 1.8 Estimate of US energy reserves. 22
Figure 2.1 Past and projected source of liquid fuels in the United States including imports. 30
Figure 2.2 Impact of atomic mass number on permanence of atoms. H, hydrogen; He, helium; Li, lithium; C, carbon; O, oxygen; F, fluorine; Ar, argon; Fe, iron; Kr, krypton; Sn, tin; Gd, Gadolinium; Pu, plutonium; Bi, bismuth; and U, uranium. 34
Figure 2.3 Fusion of hydrogen to helium. 36
Figure 2.4 History of energy. 38
Figure 2.5 Basic steam cycle used with nuclear reactor source of heat. 40
Figure 2.6 Escalating chain reaction such as in a nuclear bomb. 42
Figure 2.7 Controlled steady-state chain nuclear fission such as in a nuclear reactor. 43
Figure 2.8 Approximate inventory of commercially spent nuclear fuel and fissionable isotopes having weapon potential (Pu-239 and U-235). The solid lines are for continued operation without reprocessing and the dashed lines are for reprocessing (starting in 2005) to meet the needs of current nuclear capacity. 46
Figure 2.9 Comparison of estimated reserves of prominent fuels other than renewable fuels. 64
Figure 2.10 Illustration of petroleum drilling rig and reservoir. 65
Figure 2.11 Historic and projected prices of petroleum, consumption of petroleum, and billions of dollars per year spent on oil imports by the United States. 71
Figure 3.1 Historic crude oil prices. 83
Figure 3.2 Summary of tax breakdown on $28 barrel of synthetic crude. 92
Figure 3.3 Summary of price contributions on a gallon of gasoline on a 201 cents per gallon of unleaded regular gasoline. 96
Figure 3.4 Comparison of electrical power generating capacity by fuel sources for electrical power generation in the United States between 1999 and 2012. 101
Figure 3.5 Carbon dioxide emissions by sector. 110
Figure 3.6 US IRS carbon dioxide sequestration credit form. 113
Figure 4.1 On Earth, most energy comes from the sun and ultimately becomes heat. This is a fascinating story of trial and error with the successful inventions providing the many devices we use every day. 122
Figure 4.2 Illustration of how pistons perform work. 128
Figure 4.3 Condensing steam used to move a piston. 133
Figure 4.4 Use of high- and low-pressure steam to power a piston. 133
Figure 4.5 Illustration of basic steam turbine power cycle. 139
Figure 4.6 Illustration of boiling water reactor (BWR) and steam power cycle. 141
Figure 4.7 Illustration of pressurized water reactor (PWR) and steam power cycle. 141
Figure 4.8 Illustration of atom and electron flow in hydrogen fuel cell. 151
Figure 4.9 Illustration of fuel cell circuit powering an electric motor. 152
Figure 4.10 Illustration of flow battery. 157
Figure 5.1 Crude oil fractions and market demands. 164
Figure 5.2 Summary of energy losses in use of fuel for automobile travel. 179
Figure 5.3 Average fuel economy of on-the-road vehicles. 180
Figure 5.4 Projected prices of electric vehicle batteries in $/kWh. 187
Figure 5.5 Projected energy densities of electric vehicle batteries in Wh/kg. 188
Figure 5.6 Illustration of Terreplane advanced transportation concept illustrating simple and low-cost nature of the propulsion line. 189
Figure 6.1 Example energy guide for a clothes dryer. 197
Figure 6.2 Typical vapor compression air conditioning cycle. 199
Figure 6.3 Illustration of heat pump showing operation of air conditioning versus heating modes. 201
Figure 6.4 Illustration of a base load power in 365 days a year and how space heating can increase base load. 203
Figure 6.5 Illustration of peak demand from chillers used for air conditioning during 24 hour a day. 204
Figure 6.6 Illustration of phase-change material nodules used to store cold during the night for use during the day to shift use of electricity from day to night. 205
Figure 7.1 Increases in thermal efficiency electrical power generation during past century. 212
Figure 7.2 Energy consumption in the U.S. Distribution by energy source only includes sources contributing more than 2% of the energy in each category. 214
Figure 7.3 Impact of space heating on base load for electrical power generation. 215
Figure 7.4 Estimated installed capacity for energy storage in global grid in 2011. 216
Figure 7.5 Simplified presentations of parallel and series HEV designs. 217
Figure 7.6 Comparison of PHEV and BEV designs. The PHEV has an engine and smaller battery pack. The BEV does not have a backup engine. 218
Figure 7.7 Comparison of net present cost for operating a conventional vehicle (CV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), plug-in HEV with a 20-mile range (PHEV-20), and a battery electric vehicle (BEV) with 200 mile range. Present values are based on a 7-year life cycle, $1.75 per gallon gasoline, and 6¢/kWh electricity. Data on PHEV-20, HEV, and CV from Frank. 219
Figure 7.8 Illustration of city BEV. The city BEV is a compact vehicle that has a maximum range of 60 miles. The city BEV is a niche market vehicle that can meet the needs of “some” commuter applications. 221
Figure 7.9 Miles traveled with typical automobile each day and implied ability for PHEVs to replace petroleum. 222
Figure 7.10 Fuel cell technologies and their applications. 227
Figure 7.11 Illustration of Hyperloop transportation system. 231
Figure 7.12 Example per passenger energy consumption for different transportation alternatives. LPT is Low Pressure Tube Transit and would apply to both Hyperloop and Terreplane vehicles operating in low-pressure tunnels. 232
Figure 7.13 Illustration of Terreplane vehicle and nearly-straight propulsion line supported by the upper suspension cable with connecting cables between the two. 233
Figure 7.14 Illustration of Terreplane propulsion line, propulsion carriage, and connecting arm. 234
Figure 7.15 Ratios of costs for heating with fuel versus heating with electrical heat pump. Ratios based on COP of 2.0 and heater efficiency of 90%. Heated regions show where heat pump is more cost effective. 238
Figure 7.16 Dependence of a typical heat pump performance on outside temperature. 239
Figure 7.17 Comparison of heat pump using air heat sink to ground source unit. 241
Figure 8.1 Illustration of neutron-induced fission of U-235. 251
Figure 8.2 Excerpt from chart of nuclides. 254
Figure 8.3 Presentation format for stable isotopes in chart of nuclides. 255
Figure 8.4 Presentation format for unstable isotopes in chart of nuclides. 255
Figure 8.5 Skeleton of complete chart of nuclides illustrating stable nuclei. 256
Figure 8.6 Energy-level diagram for Nickel-60. 258
Figure 8.7 Decay chain for fertile collisions with Th-232 and U-238. 262
Figure 8.8 Plot of binding energies as function of mass number. Higher values reflect more stable compounds. The values are the binding energy per-nuclei release of energy if free protons, neutrons, and electrons combined to form the most stable nuclei for that atomic number. 263
Figure 8.9 Typical neutron absorption cross section versus neutron energy. 266
Figure 8.10 Illustration of laboratory fusion. 272
Figure 8.11 Illustration of steam cycle operating at 33% thermal efficiency. 282
Figure 8.12 Evolution of thermal efficiency in steam cycle. Higher temperature steam turbine operation was a key improvement. 283
Figure 8.13 Illustration of staged expansion. 284
Figure 8.14 Accuracy of empirical model for power cycle thermal efficiency. 285
Figure 8.15 Illustration of steam reheat in power cycle. 286
Figure 8.16 Comparison of efficiency projections of different models. The Joule and Modified Joule models assume a feed temperature of 313 K. 287
Figure 8.17 Projected thermal efficiencies as a function of maximum steam temperature and a low temperature of 313 K. 287
Figure 8.18 Illustration of boiler, super heater, and steam reheat in a pulverized coal power plant. 288
Figure 8.19 Schematic of boiling water reactor (BWR). 289
Figure 8.20 Schematic of pressurized water reactor (PWR). 290
Figure 8.21 Schematic of supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR). 294
Figure 8.22 Schematic of very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR). 295
Figure 8.23 Schematic of gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR). 296
Figure 8.24 Schematic of sodium-cooled fast reactor. 297
Figure 8.25 Schematic of lead-cooled fast reactor. 298
Figure 8.26 Schematic of molten salt reactor (MSR). 299
Figure 8.27 Illustration of mass balance for reprocessing. Mass is mass of heavy metal plus fission products of heavy metal. 308
Figure 8.28 Mass balance of once-through fuel use as practiced in the United States. The fission products are the “waste.” The years indicate years of available energy if used at the same rate as used in once-through burns. Both France and England have immobilized the concentrated fission products in glass for long-term storage. 309
Figure 8.29 Recovery of unused fuel is the first phase of fuel reprocessing. Casings are physically separated as the initial step in future nuclear waste management—separation of structural metals in the bundles and recovery of fissionable fuel. 310
Figure 8.30 Schematic of overall process to minimize hazardous waste from nuclear power. The masses in tons represent total estimated US inventory from commercial reactors in 2014, about 65,000 tons. The volumes are based on uranium density—the actual fission produce volumes would be about twice the values shown. 311
Figure 8.31 Illustration of full-use uranium providing centuries of energy. Thorium is also a fertile fuel that can be used in this closed cycle. 312
Figure 8.32 Conversion of U-238 to Pu-239. 315
Figure 8.33 Block flow diagram of PUREX reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel. 323
Figure 8.34 UREX block flow diagram. 324
Figure 8.35 Pyropartitioning process to recover heavy metals. 331
Figure 8.36 Impact of advanced nuclear fuel reprocessing. 337
Figure 9.1 Trends in cost of wind turbine power systems as available from internet marketing. Costs generally do not include installation and conversion from DC to AC. 347
Figure 9.2 Illustration of electrification of Africa in 2013. Available from CIA Factbook. 353
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