The cache in the Bridge application is a portion of hard disk memory that is used to store thumbnail, metadata and file information. Caching these details means that loading times for folders and files that have already been displayed are much shorter. Bridge 2.0 changes the options for cache building. By default caches are built for specific folders when the contents are first displayed in Bridge. Alternatively the cache building process can occur before display by selecting the folder and then choosing Tools > Cache > Build Cache for Subfolders (1). This action speeds up the display of the contents in the subfolders when they are first viewed.

When copying images to a CD or DVD the cache for the files can be added to the disk to help speed up display when the photos are first viewed. If you have selected the Use A Centralized Cache File (CS2) or the CS3 option Automatically Export Caches To Folders when Possible (2) in the Preferences dialog, then to include the cache data in the picture folder you will need to select the Tools > Cache > Export Cache option before copying the folder to CD or DVD.

The Purge Cache for this Folder (1), that is also available in the Tools > Cache Menu, clears the memory of the data saved for the folder selected. This is a good option for removing a corrupted cache and then rebuilding a new one.

ThePurge Cache option in the Advanced section of Bridge Preferences deletes the whole centralized cache, freeing up space on the hard drive.

This mode lets you merge two channels from one or two images and save the result as a new channel in one of the existing images or create a new image.

The Calculations palette gives you various options, including Blend method, and is useful if you want to combine masks or selections.

Photoshop has a color management system that will help ensure that what you see on screen will be as close as possible to what you print and what others see on their screens.

For this reason, it is important that you set up your computer to use this system before starting to make changes to your images. The critical part of the process is the calibration of your monitor.

You can use the Adobe Gamma utility (1) supplied with Photoshop to help balance the tone, contrast and color of your monitor or many photographers prefer to employ a combination hardware/software solution such as those provided by ColorVision (2) or X-Rite. These options calibrate the monitor by sending a series of known color and tone swatches to the screen, which are then measured using the included color photometer.

For a step-by-step guide to calibrating your screen with Adobe Gamma and ColorVision’s Spyder2 go to the tutorial section at the front of this book.

When you open a Raw file into Photoshop you are presented with an editing dialog containing a full color, interpolated preview of the sensor data. This editor is called Adobe Camera Raw.

Using a variety of menu options, dialogs and image tools you will be able to interactively adjust image data factors such as tonal distribution and color saturation. Many of these changes can be made with familiar editing tools like Levels and Curves controls. The results of your editing can be reviewed immediately via the live preview image and associated histogram graphs. After these general image-editing steps have taken place you can apply some enhancement changes, such as filtering for sharpness using an Unsharp Mask tool, removing moire effects, correcting red eye, removing spots and applying some smoothing.

The final phase of the process involves selecting the color space, color depth, pixel dimensions and image resolution with which the processed file will be saved.

Clicking the OK button sets the utility into action applying your changes to the Raw file, whilst at the same time interpolating the Bayer data to create a full color image and then opening the processed file into the full Photoshop workspace.

Camera Raw can be used outside of Photoshop from within the Bridge workspace. Multiple files can be selected (either via the File > Open dialog or with Bridge) and edited in Camera Raw. Simply select several images in Bridge and then press Ctrl/Cmd R. This opens Camera Raw in Filmstrip mode (1). Settings can be applied to individual files or ‘Synchronized’ across all photos in the filmstrip (8). Processed files can then be saved directly from Camera Raw in a variety of formats. - DNG, TIFF, PSD or JPEG (9).

New for Cs3

• • Adobe Camera Raw 4.0 (ACR 4.0) can be used with TIFF and JPEG as well as Raw files.
• • ACR includes both a Red Eye Removal and Spot Removal tool.
• • New features also include sliders for Recovery, Fill Light and Vibrance.
• • Custom monochrome conversions are possible via the HSL/Grayscale control. After which these photos can be tinted using the Split Toning control.
• • Curves gets a boost of functionality with the addition of a new Parametric option where portions of the tonal range ( Highlights, Lights, Darks and Shadows) can be manipulated separately with slider controls.
• • Favorite conversion settings can be stored and managed using the new Presets tab and panel.
• • Raw files can be opened as Smart Objects directly into Photoshop CS3 by holding down the Shift key and clicking the Open Object button.

• 1. Filmstrip area.
• 2. Preview area.
• 3. Histogram.
• 4. Conversion settings.
• 5. Saving (workflow) options.
• 6. Shadow/Highlights clipping warnings.
• 7. Cropping, color sampling, red eye, spot removal and straightening tools.
• 8. Synchronize setting button.
• 9. File formats for saving.
• 10. Rating stars.

The Image Processor located in both Bridge and Photoshop can be used to batch process and save multiple Raw files.

The utility can also save and size in several different formats (1) at the same time, providing a fast and efficient workflow for processing images that have been captured in a single session.

In CS3 and CS2, Raw files can be opened directly into Camera Raw from inside Bridge (1) without needing to open the full Photoshop application first. This makes for a workflow where downloaded Raw photographs start as thumbnails in Bridge and suitable images are then multiselected, opened and processed with the Camera Raw editor. This whole procedure takes place inside Bridge.

The revised Camera Raw workspace can now process several photos without having to open and close each in turn. The multi-selected photos are loaded into the feature and wait to be processed in the new Filmstrip section (2) of the dialog.

When processing severa images that were photlo- graphed under the same : c lighting conditions, the Camera Raw settings from the first image can be copied and pasted to all other files using the options found under the Edit > Apply Camera Raw menu (3). In the same way the default or previously used settings can also be applied to several photos at once.

You can clear the Camera Raw settings that have been applied or pasted to a picture by selecting the thumbnail in Bridge and then choosing the Clear Camera Raw Settings (1) from the right-click menu in CS2 or Develop Settings > Clear Settings in CS3 (2).

Single button Mac users can display the same menu by Ctrl/Cmd-clicking on the thumbnail.

Whilst working within Bridge it is possible to copy and paste the Camera Raw settings from one picture to another.

Simply select the thumbnail with the settings to copy and then choose the Copy Camera Raw Settings option (1) from the right-click menu (Ctrl-click for single button Mac users).

Next click on the thumbnail that you wish to transfer the settings to and choose the Paste Camera Raw Settings (2) to the file. You can choose which settings to apply in the dialog that pops up.

In CS3 and Bridge 2.0 these options have been moved to the new Develop Settings menu in the right-click menu (3).

After applying all the conversion settings to your Raw file the Camera Raw dialog provides you with eight different options of what to do next.

Done - Applies the Raw conversion settings and then closes Camera Raw without opening the picture fully in Photoshop.

Save... - Processes the file and then displays a Save dialog that contains naming, file format and destination folder options.

Open - Processes the files and then opens the completed picture in Photoshop.

Open Object (Shift-click the Open button)

- Opens the photo currently in the ACR workspace as a Smart Object in Photoshop. Only available in CS3.

Open Copy (Alt/Opt-click the Open button) - Applies the current development settings and opens a copy of the photo in Photoshop. Only available in CS3.

Cancel -Quits the dialog and applies no changes to the selected file.

Reset (Alt/Opt-click the Cancel button) - Resets all the settings in the dialog from their current position.

Save (Alt/Opt-click the Save button) -Bypasses the Save dialog and the options it contains.

• 1) Default buttons.
• 2) Buttons with Shift key pressed.
• 3) Buttons with the Alt/Opt key pressed. NB: The Save button in CS3 has been relocated to the left side of the ACR dialog.
• 4) Button grouping in CS2.

In creating documents in Photoshop the program makes a distinction between the canvas (1), upon which pictures and other content are placed, and the image content (2) itself. This is true even for photos with one layer only. For most newly imported photos the canvas and image size are exactly the same and so the canvas remains hidden from view.

Given this distinction, it is possible to resize, alter the format or change the color of the canvas without affecting the image at all.

Altering the settings in the Canvas Size dialog changes the dimensions of the background the image is sitting upon. Larger dimensions than the picture result in more space around the image. Smaller dimensions crop the image.

To change the canvas size, select Canvas Size from the Image menu and alter the settings in the New Size section of the dialog.

You can control the location of the new space in relation to the original image by clicking one of the sections in the Anchor diagram. Leaving the default setting here will mean that the canvas change will be spread evenly around the image.

The Chalk & Charcoal filter is one of several drawing-like filters that can be found in the Sketch section of the Filter menu in Photoshop. The feature simulates the effect of making a drawing of the photograph with white chalk and black charcoal. The tones in the photograph that range from shadow to mid-gray are replaced by the charcoal strokes and those lighter values (from mid-gray to white) are ‘drawn’ in using the chalk color.

The filter dialog gives you control over the balance of the amount and placement of the charcoal and chalk areas as well as the pressure of the stroke used to draw the picture. Higher values for the Charcoal (1) and Chalk (2) Area sliders will increase the number and variations of tones that are drawn with these colors. High settings for the Stroke Pressure slider (3) produce crisper transitions between tones and a more contrasty result.

To add a little more color to your Chalk and Charcoal ‘drawings’ select colors other than black and white for the foreground and background values. Double-click each swatch to open the Color Picker where you can select the new hue.

The Channel Mixer is one of those tools in Photoshop that you come to once you have a little more experience.

The mixer gives you control over the color components of a single channel. By adjusting the color of the individual Red, Green and Blue channels you can change the color of an element within the picture (1).

As well as color adjustment, one of the most common uses for the Channel Mixer feature is to control the conversion of colors to black and white. By clicking on the Monochrome option and adjusting the color sliders it is possible to alter the type of gray that specific colors are converted to (2).

When converting color images to black and white using the Monochrome option (3) it is advisable to ensure that the settings used for each of the Source Channels (4) add up to a total of 100%.

The Channel Mixer option is also available as an adjustment layer.

The Channel Mixer has been revamped for Photoshop CS3 (1). It now includes a Total (2) section that quickly provides a sum of the channels settings. This simplifies the process that many photographers go through when creating custom greyscale conversions using the feature. Now, instead of having to add up the setting values for each channel and ensure that the total equals 100% (to maintain the brightness of the original photo), it is possible to just play with the sliders, keeping an eye on the total figure.

Also changed for the CS3 version of the feature is the inclusion of a Presets menu (3) at the top of the dialog. Here you can select from a range of supplied settings or even add your own to the list by saving a custom group of settings. Do this by making the adjustments to the dialog and then click the Presets Options button and select the Save Presets entry from the menu that appears (4). Next add in a name for the preset and click OK. The settings will then be added as a new entry to the Presets list.

Photoshop is made up of channels that store information about the image. A freshly created RGB file has a channel for each of the three colors Red, Green and Blue, and a CMYK file has four channels (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black), while Duotones and Index color images have j ust one.

You can add channels to store info about the picture. For example, Alpha channels can be added to save selections as masks. Then, when you want to perform a similar cutout in the future, you load the Alpha channel to bring the marching ants into play on the selected layer.

Channels can also be edited individually so you could blend certain ones, or fiddle with the color ofjust one channel - useful when you want to make a selection based on a certain color that would be easier to do in its own environment.

Individual color channels appear as black and white by default. If you prefer to see them in color go to File > Preferences > Displays and Cursors and select the Color Channels in Color option.

Giving similarly textured results to the Chalk & Charcoal filter, the straight Charcoal filter makes use of only one drawing tone to create the sketching effect.

Three sliders control the appearance of the final result. Charcoal Thickness (1) adjusts the density of the drawn areas whereas the Detail slider (2) adjusts the level of detail that is retained from the original picture. Care should be taken with the settings used for the Light/Dark Balance slider (3) to ensure that some shadow and highlight detail is retained.

Version Que is a file-version manager included with Bridge when the package is shipped as part of a suite of Adobe products. The program tracks changes that are made to photos, illustrations and design documents and also manages how multiple users access and change a single document in a network situation.

The File > Check In (1) command is used to create a new version of a project file being managed by Version Que and sitting on the Version Que server. This is different to using the File > Save option which adds your changes to the current version of the document and saves the changes to the local version of the file only. To update the server version of the file you must ‘check in’ the file.

When the document is ‘checked in’ in the same file format as a previous version, a Check In dialog is displayed. Here you can add comments about the changes made to the new version (2). When it is necessary to change the format of the original file (i.e. from JPEG to PSD) the file will be checked in as a new master file.

When you edit a file that is being managed by Version Cue it is marked as being ‘checked out’. If another user tries to edit the same file the user is notified and Version Que provides options for how to proceed to ensure the integrity of the file.

This feature, which was introduced in version 7.0, proves useful if you are using the Type tool to work with text in Photoshop.

Once selected, the utility automatically runs through your work and finds anything that isn’t spelled correctly or doesn’t appear in its dictionary and suggests an alternative.

If, for example, it found the incorrectly spelt ‘grassshopper’ the feature would suggest the correct ‘grasshopper’ and you could then click on ‘change’ to have the word automatically substituted.

This sort of feature is available with all word and DTP (desktop publishing) packages and is a welcome addition to Photoshop.

The Chrome filter is another Sketch filter designed to change the appearance of your picture so that it looks like it is created from another surface. In this case the filter converts the detail of the picture to simulate the look of polished chrome.

During the transformation you have control over both the detail (1) that is retained in the filter photo as well as the smoothness (2) of the chromed surface.

In some instances a further levels enhancement to increase the contrast of the final filtered picture will help produce brighter highlights on the silvered surface.

The Clear blend mode that is available for the painting and drawing tools in Photoshop removes the image pixels from the layer, converting the area to transparent. For instance, when the brush is set to Clear mode it acts in a similar way to the Eraser tool.

For the Clear mode to be available in the Blend mode menu of the options bar, the layer’s Transparency Lock must not be selected and the layer itself cannot be a background layer.

The File > Open Recent menu lists files most recently opened in Photoshop (1). Selecting one of the entries provides a fast way to open these images without the need to browse through folders or search for them in Bridge.

The Clear Recent option (2) is a new addition to the Open Recent menu. Its role is to remove all file entries from the menu. Once this is done the Open Recent option will be grayed out (3) and will not be selectable until a new file is opened into Photoshop and therefore added to the Recent Files menu.

You can alter the number of entries kept on the menu using the settings in the Edit > Preferences > File Handling dialog. The default is 10.

The Clipboard is a part of the computer’s memory which is allocated to storing information that is copied and pasted.

In Photoshop the Clipboard memory space is used every time you select a picture part, copy it and paste it back down as a new layer. During this process the copied image is stored on the Clipboard and remains there until it is replaced by a new copied part or is deleted using the Purge command.

Unlike other applications Photoshop uses its own specialized clipboard, not that of the operating system.

Clear (purge) the Clipboard often if you regularly copy large pictures, or find that you are always low on memory.

Puts an invisible path (2) around an image to ensure the background is transparent when the image is dropped into an illustration or desktop publishing page. To create a clipping path, first outline the subject with a selection tool such as the Lasso or Magic Wand tools to make a selection then click on the arrow at the right of the Paths palette and select Make Work Path (1), then Save Path. Finally, select Clipping Path.

Save the file as an EPS or TIFF, which keeps the clipping path data which can then be read by the DTP software to allow a transparent background or text to wrap around the subject (3).

Just like layers and channels, actions for manipulating paths are centered around a single palette - the Paths palette - which can be displayed by selecting the Paths option from the Windows menu.

The Clone Stamp tool has been fully revised in CS3. It is now possible to sample multiple areas and store and switch between these different sources.

The revamped tool and its associated settings in the new Clone Source palette provide the ability to preview a floating semi-transparent version of the source (overlay) over the background of the image (1). Once the overlay is located on the background you can start to clone as normal, painting in the copied details from the source point (2).

Sources are stored using the buttons at the top of the palette (3). If the options are set to Auto-Hide (4) then the Overlay will disappear during the cloning process.

Scanning your prints or negatives is a great way to convert existing pictures into digital, but sometimes during the process you pick up a few unwanted dust marks as well as the picture details.

Or maybe when you photographed your mother you did not realize that the electricity pole in the background would look like it is protruding from her head in your picture. Removing or changing these parts of an image is a basic skill needed by all digital photographers and Photoshop contains just the tool to help eliminate these unwanted areas.

Called the Clone Stamp tool (or sometimes the Rubber Stamp tool), the feature selects and samples an area of your picture and then uses these pixels to paint over the offending marks. It takes a little getting used to, but as your confidence grows so too will the quality of your repairs and changes.

There are several ways to use the tool. For starters it acts like a brush so you can change the size, allowing cloning from just one pixel wide to hundreds. You can change the opacity to produce a subtle clone effect. You can select any one of the options from the Blend menu. And, most importantly, there’s a choice between Clone align or Clone non-align the sample area.

Select Aligned from the Clone Stamp options palette and the sample cursor will follow the destination cursor around keeping the same distance away. When Unaligned is chosen the sample cursor starts where you left off with all ensuing paint strokes. Both choices have their advantages.

• 1. Make sure that you select the layer that you want to clone from before using Alt/ Option + Click to select the sample point.
• 2. Alternatively, if you want to sample from all the image layers in the picture select the Use All Layers option in the tool’s options bar.
• 3. Watch the cursor move over the sampled area as you clone. To avoid unexpected results be sure that the sample cursor doesn’t move into unwanted parts of the picture.
• 4. When cloning fi ne detail look around for similar areas and try to follow a path that will make the sample look natural.

Drawing on the success of the preview Clone Stamp tool inside the Vanishing Point filter, Photoshop CS3 boasts some beefy Clone Stamp options mainly due to the inclusion of the settings in the new Clone Source palette.

By switching on the Show Overlay setting you can ghost (Overlay) the source of the clone whilst moving the mouse over the canvas area (1). This enables precise positioning of the start point for the clone task, making matching new content with old much easier than ever before. Once the overlay is located on the background you can start to clone as normal, painting in the copied details from the source point (2).

The Opacity and Blend mode of the overlay can be adjusted here as well. Selecting Auto Hide will hide the overlay once you start the cloning process.

All Layers is one of the options available from the Sample menu in the Clone Stamp tool’s options. When All Layers is selected the tool uses the combination of the picture content from all visible layers in the current layer stack when painting.

Click the Ignore Adjustment Layers button to the right of the Sample menu to remove any adjustment layers from the set of layers being sampled.

The Current Layer option in the Clone Stamp’s Sample menu constrains the tool to sampling picture details from the active layer only. This means that no detail from layers stacked above or below the active layer will be used for the cloning.

This option is available from the Sample menu in the tool’s options bar.

In Photoshop CS3 the Clone Stamp tool can sample the contents of a single layer, a group of layers or all layers in a photo as the source for the cloning. These sampling alternatives are located in the tool’s options bar.

Selecting Current & Below restricts the sampling to a composite of the active layer and those visible layers beneath it. The Ignore Adjustment Layers option can be used in conjunction with this sampling mode.

The Ignore Adjustment Layers button is positioned to the right of the Sample menu in the Clone Stamp tool’s options bar (1).

Clicking the button constrains the sample source to layers containing image data only. No adjustment layer is included in any resulting cloning action. Ignore Adjustment Layers is available for All Layers, and Current & Below sampling modes.

The option is grayed out when the current layer is selected (2).

To close a single open file from the Photoshop workspace select File > Close.

If the file is not saved or changes have been made to the document since the last time it was saved you will then be presented with a Save pop-up window.

To close multiple open picture windows, select File > Close All.

If any of the files are not saved or changes have been made to them since the last time they were saved then a different save confirmation window will be displayed for each file.

Close and Go To Bridge is an option first available in CS2. Like the standard close option, this menu selection closes the currently selected open document and then switches windows to display Bridge. If Bridge is not already open then this action opens the feature as well.

If the file is not saved or changes have been made to the document since the last time it was saved you will then be presented with a Save pop-up window (1).

The Clouds filter is one of the options in the Render group of filters.

The feature creates a random cloud-like pattern based on the currently selected foreground and background colors (1).

Apart from altering these colors there are no other options for adjusting the effect created by this filter.

This filter is particularly good for creating effects that can be used as effective backgrounds to your pictures. Blue creates natural skies (2) while orange will deliver a sunset effect and black will produce a stormy sky.

If the cloud effect is too harsh use Ctrl/ Cmd keys to reduce the image on screen. Then use the Transform tool to stretch the clouds.

Most digital photographs are captured using the three channel RGB (Red, Green, Blue) mode. When such fi les are printed the color is converted from RGB into a CMYK color mode. This usually occurs as a process in the background without you knowing.

CMYK is the standard method of printing for both inkjet and magazine and uses Cyan, Magenta and Yellow inks to make up the various colors.

A 100% combination of C, M and Y should produce black, but in reality it’s a murky brown color so the Black ink (K to avoid confusion with the Blue of RGB) ensures black is printed where necessary.

Strictly speaking a collage is a collection of photographs mounted together, but Photoshop creates a perfect digital alternative by bringing several photos together to form one larger image that hasn’t seen a drop of glue or sticky tape.

It’s a great technique to use to create a family tree (1), group photo, promo, surreal image or a panel to go on a Web site or stationery header.

Using Layers makes the job much easier and more controllable. Here masks and blend modes allow lower layers to react with ones above.

The binary text was created using the text tool and then distorted, skewed and stretched, to give it a forward look.

Used to remove or create a color cast. The Color Balance dialog has three sliders to control the color.

The middle slider controls magenta and green (2) and the bottom, yellow and blue (3).

Precise values can be keyed in the top boxes. You can also select where you want the color to change, placing emphasis in the highlights, shadows or midtones (4).

The final option is to Preserve Luminosity, which maintains the original brightness when it’s turned on (5).

In practice, the Color Balance option is helpful in correcting the hues in shots taken with mismatched white balance. For example, the Daylight white balance setting is designed to produce a natural looking range of colors for outdoor photography or indoor shots taken with flash. Take a photo indoors without flash and you’ll end up with a color cast.

This will be green if the light source is fluorescent or orange if it’s tungsten light. Some flashguns are so harsh that they create a blue color cast. The walls in a room can also reflect light to add a color to your subject.

Correct or lessen these cast problems with the Color Balance feature.

The Color option is one of the many blend modes that can be set for both layers and painting/drawing tools in Photoshop.

This mode is particularly useful when creating traditional hand-coloring effects (adding color to a black and white picture). Unlike when working with the Normal mode, where the color applied by the brush paints over (and replaces) the original color and detail of the photo beneath, the Color mode maintains the detail and replaces the color only.

• 1. Zoom in close and then change your brush’s size and edge softness to get into those small and tricky areas of your picture.
• 2. If you accidentally paint into an area with the wrong color, don’t panic. Either use the Edit > Undo command or reselect the surrounding color using the Eyedropper tool and then paint over the mistake.

See the tutorial section at the front of this text for a step-by-step guide to hand-coloring.

The Color Burn blending mode is one of the group of modes that darkens the picture.

Here, when the upper layer is changed to the Color Burn mode its content is used to darken the bottom layer and in the process mirror the color of the upper layer.

Blending with a white upper layer produces no change.

Photographing under a range of mixed lighting conditions can cause your pictures to have a strange color cast. There are several Photoshop tools that can be used to remove this tint from your photos.

The Auto Color and Auto Levels options both attempt to redistribute the colors and, in the case of Levels the tones as well, to achieve a neutral result. As with most automatic options there will be occasions when this approach works well and times when the results are not all you expect. If this occurs select Edit > Undo to reverse the changes applied and then try another cast removal approach.

For a more manual approach, both the Color Balance and Variations features allow incremental color changes to specific tonal areas (shadow, midtones, highlights) of the picture.

Each digital fi le you create (photograph or scan) is capable of representing a specifi c number of colors. This capability, usually referred to as the mode or color depth of the picture, is expressed in terms of the number of ‘bits’.

Most images these days are created in 24-bit mode. This means that each of the three color channels (Red, Green and Blue) is capable of displaying 256 levels of color (or 8 bits) each. When the channels are combined, a 24-bit image can contain a staggering 16.7 million discrete tones/ hues.

This is a vast amount of colors and would be seemingly more than we could ever need, see, or print, but many modern cameras and scanners are now capable of capturing up to 16 bits per channel or ‘high-bit’ capture. This means that each of the three colors can have up to 65,536 different levels and the image itself a whopping 281,474,976 million colors (last time I counted!).

Earlier versions of Photoshop were only capable of supporting 8-bit fi les, but CS3 supports both 8- and 16-bit fi les and can now open and edit (in a limited way) 32-bit or HDR fi les as well. Editing pictures in 16- bit or higher bit modes provides far better results (smoother and with more detail) than manipulation in 8-bit. Where possible perform all editing in 16-bit mode.

The Color Dodge blending mode is one of the group of modes that lighten the picture.

When the top layer is changed to the Color Dodge mode, its content is used to lighten the bottom layer in a dodging fashion. In the process, the bottom layer’s color mirrors that of the upper layer.

Blending with a black upper layer produces no change.

The Color Halftone filter replicates the look of the CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black) printing process. The photograph is broken into the four colors and the tone for each of the colors represented by a series of dots. Where the color is strongest the dots are bigger and can even join up. In the lighter tones the dots are small and are surrounded by large areas of white paper.

The controls in the filter dialog are separated into two sections - the size of the dot that makes up the screen (1) and the angle (2) that will be applied to each of the color screens. In practice the best results are obtained when the dot size is altered and the screen angle left alone.

Color Halftone is one of the Pixelate group of filfe rs.

The Color Dynamics settings in the Brushes palette provide a range of options for altering the color jitter of the Brush tool. The jitter characteristic controls the amount that the setting fluctuates.

Note: In CS3 brush characteristic controls are accessed in the Expanded View of the Brushes palette, which is displayed by selecting the Expanded View option in palette’s Setting menu (1).

TheForeground/Background Jitter (2) adjusts the oscillation between these two colors. The Hue Jitter (3) setting changes the hue color as you paint. The Saturation Jitter (4) controls variations in color strength and the Brightness Jitter (5) fluctuates the lightness of the tone.

In combination these settings control the overall color jitter of the Brush tool.

Good color management is the foundation of consistent color from the time of capture (photographing or scanning) through editing and enhancement tasks and finally to printing. Establishing a workflow that understands the capabilities and limitations of each of the devices in this production process is key to setting up a color managed system. For this reason professionals use an ICC (International Color Consortium) profile-based system to manage the color in their pictures.

The options that govern color management in Photoshop are grouped in a single dialog titled Color Settings. Here you select the working profiles that will be used for each picture type (RGB, CMYK and Grayscale) and determine when and how any color space conversions will occur.

To ensure that you get the benefits of color management, be sure to turn on color management features for your camera, scanner, monitor, software and printer. Always tag your files as you capture them and then use this profile to help keep color consistency as you edit, output and share your work. Photoshop CS3 now includes synchronized color managed previews in the Print dialog.

Over the last few years one of the most pressing issues for the digital photographer has been the question of how to maintain color control of his or her pictures throughout the whole production process. Thankfully companies like Adobe have been working hard on the problem and CS3 provides the best all round color management options for the digital worker that we have seen to date.

One feature that makes this new release stand out in this regard is the synchronized color management offered via Bridge. The Bridge application not only provides a single place to access and manage your media assets it also contains the ability to synchronize the color settings used in all Adobe CS2/CS3 applications.

To synchronize your color settings in CS2 start with Bridge open and the Bridge Center option selected from the Favorites list (1). Next press the Synchronize color management button (2) at the bottom of the window and choose the color setting from those listed in the dialog that is displayed.

The Bridge Center workspace and therefore the Synchronized Color options are only available to Creative Suite 2/3 owners. The version of Bridge shipped with Photoshop alone does not contain these options.

Photoshop can create, edit and convert images to and from several different color modes. The mode of a picture document determines the maximum number of colors that can be stored in the file and this in turn affects the size of the file. Generally speaking more colors means a larger file size.

The mode options available in Photoshop are listed under the Image > Mode menu. They are:

Bitmap - Can only contain black and white colors.

Grayscale - Supports up to 256 levels of gray including black and white.

Duotone - A Monochrome color mode that is used for printing tinted black and white images. Duotone uses two inks, Tritone three inks and Quadtone four inksets.

Indexed Color - Can contain up to 256 different colors and is the default color mode for the GIF file format.

RGB Color - This is the default mode for all photos in Photoshop. It is an 8-bit color mode which means that it can support 256 levels of color in Red, Green and Blue channels, giving a combined maximum total number of hues possible of over 16 million. Colors in this mode are described by three numbers representing the red, green and blue value of the individual pixel.

CMYK - In this essentially ‘printing only’ color mode the value of each color is represented as a percentage of ink color.

Lab color - This mode is comprised of three channels - Lightness, ‘a’ color (green-red) and ‘b’ color (blue-yellow).

Multi-channel - This modes is generally for specialized printing applications and supports 256 levels of gray in each channel.

Photoshop’s Color Range is a versatile tool that can be used to help you select and change the color of a part of your picture. This could easily be a model’s lipstick, car paint work or, as in this case, red pupils. With the picture open call up the Color Range dialog (Select > Color Range). To make it easier to see what you’re doing click on Selection at the bottom of the palette to turn the preview window into a grayscale image. For this exercise also select Sampled Colors from the menu at the top of the palette.

Now click on the left-hand Eyedropper tool and position your cursor over a part of the red pupil and click once. You’ll see areas of white appear on the grayscale preview. These are red pixels that are similar in color to the red you’ve just clicked. Adjust the Fuzziness slider to control the range of reds that are selected. Click OK when you are happy with your results.

Now, with the pupil successfully selected, use the Hue slider from the Hue/Saturation control to alter the color to a shade that is more suitable.

The Color Range palette also lets you choose which type of mask to put over the image as you work. We’ve been using None, but the menu box, labelled Selection Preview at the bottom of the palette, has i four other options. Grayscale makes the | image look like the palette’s preview. Black Matte shows the unselected area black. White Matte makes the unselected area white. Quick Mask puts red over unselected areas.

The Color Replacement tool appears as the third option under the Brush and Pencil tools (1) in the Photoshop CS2 toolbar. This feature is used to replace the color in the photograph with the current foreground color and acts like a paintbrush that changes the color.

If you set the foreground color to black and the mode to Hue it acts like a desaturation brush. You could previously do this by changing a photo from color to grayscale and then back to color, setting the History to the grayscale state and painting in with the History brush. Using the Color Replacement tool is a much quicker way. It goes one stage further by working like the Magic eraser, where it only replaces the color of pixels within the same tolerance range as the first sampled point.

An Eyedropper tool that is used to place one or several sample points on the photo so you can compare color and density of each spot using measurements displayed in the Info palette.

A second set of measurements appears at the side of the current values, showing the adjustments you make when using controls such as levels, curves, contrast and brightness.

In this example I placed four samples in the highlight areas of the waterfall so I could adjust curves and ensure there was still detail in most parts.

Allows you to set up color profiles so that images you open up either use a preselected color space, or are converted to a specific profile.

Spend some time setting this up correctly and you’ll maintain consistent color when the image is displayed and printed. Mac OSX users will find the item under the Photoshop menu not the Edit menu.

Color temperature refers to the color of the lighting used to illuminate your photos. Most digital cameras have a range of color temperature or white balance (1) settings designed to accommodate changing lighting conditions.

Matching your camera’s setting to the light source in the picture will help ensure that the photograph is recorded without a color cast. Alternatively, some cameras have an Auto white balance option that attempts to match the light source and the way that the sensor records to obtain neutral cast-free pictures.

Photoshop also has Color Temperature sliders in the White Balance part (2) of Adobe Camera Raw. This feature is designed to correct imbalances between light source and sensor settings at the time of capture.

The Colored Pencil filter is one of the options in the Artistic group of filters. The feature creates a drawn version of the photograph simulating the effect of colored pencils. The detail in the image is retained and different tones are created using crosshatching.

Three slider controls can be found in the filter dialog. The Pencil Width (1) controls the bands of drawn color that replicate the picture’s detail, the Stroke Pressure (2) adjusts the amount of color laid down on the paper surface and the Paper Brightness Magentas: L^J Tint Hue (3) determines the tone of the paper the pencil is drawn on (from black to white).

The Colorize option (checkbox) at the bottom right of the Hue/Saturation dialog (1) provides a creative option for toning your photographs. The option converts a colored image to a monochrome made up of a single dominant color and black and white. Change the tint color by selecting different Hue values and alter the strength of the toning effect via the Saturation slider. Hue/Saturation adjustments can also be made non-destructively to your picture by using a Hue/Saturation adjustment layer.

Note: The CS3 Black & White feature also provides the option for tinting monochrome images vis the settings at the bottom of the dialog (2).

As well as the standard operating system options such as maximize and minimize the Bridge window can be viewed in Compact, Ultra Compact and Full modes. These options are available by pressing the Compact (1) or Full mode (2) buttons on the feature’s options bar. Pressing the Compact button while Bridge is already in Compact mode will cause the window to reduce to display just a title bar and folder menu. This view is called Ultra Compact mode.

The Options dialog box for the lossy JPEG fi le format provides a slider control that moves between the two extremes of small file with least image quality and large file with best image quality.

The files that hold our digital pictures store information about the color, brightness and position of the pixels that make up the image. As the resolution and color depth of pictures increase so too does the file itself. Some of the more recently released cameras are capable of capturing pictures with file sizes beyond 20 Mb each.

Large files like these take up a lot of storage room and are impossible to email. For this reason a lot of photographers shrink their files by applying a form of compression to their pictures.

Compression is a system that reorders and rationalizes the way in which the information is stored. The result is a file that is optimized and therefore reduced in size.

There are two different types of compression possible:

Lossy - This compression type is capable of shrinking files to very small sizes (file size can be reduced to as little as 1% of the original) but loses picture detail in the process. The JPEG file format uses this type of compression.

Lossless - The lossless approach maintains all the detail of the original but optimizes the file and can reduce file sizes by up to 40%. The TIFF file format is an example of a file format that uses this compression.

Good compression comes from lossy storage of the image, but images that retain all their original quality are only possible via lossless systems.

The Conditional Mode Change option is one of the commands located under the Automate menu. It is used to change the color mode of a picture from a ‘source’ (1) mode to a ‘destination’ (2) mode.

Add this command to an action sequence to keep the color mode of all files the same when the action is being performed.

This option, as well as the Fit Image command, is designed to be embedded into Photoshop actions to help facilitate the automation of a wide range of tasks.

When the Constrain Proportions option in the Image Size dialog is selected any changes will maintain the proportions of the photo’s sides. Keeping the sides of a picture in proportion when changing size is also called maintaining the aspect ratio of the picture.

This option should always be selected unless you intentionally wish to squash or stretch the photo.

The Contact Sheet option creates a series of small thumbnail versions of all the images in a catalog or those that were multiselected before opening the tool.

These small pictures are arranged on pages and can be labeled with a filename caption. Once created it is an easy task to print a series of these contact sheets that can be kept as a permanent record of a folder’s images. The job of selecting the best pictures to manipulate and print can then be made with hard copies of your photos without having to spend the time and money to output every image to be considered.

The feature can be accessed via the Tools > Photoshop options in Bridge or the Automate menu in Photoshop. Individual pictures can be multi-selected for inclusion in the feature when working via Bridge. In contrast, complete folders of photos are used when the feature is accessed from within Photoshop.

The options contained within the Contact Sheet dialog allow the user to select the number of columns of image thumbnails and the content of the text labels that are added. The page size and orientation can be chosen via the Page Setup button.

The Conte Crayon filter is one of the options in the Sketch group of filters. The feature replicates the effect of a traditional conte crayon drawing created with dark and light crayons on a textured paper background. The detail in the image is retained and different tones and colors are created using shaded areas of background and foreground color.

The controls for the filter are divided into two sections - one that controls the interaction of the dark and light tones or picture details (1) and a second that houses sliders and drop-down menus for adjusting the surface texture (2).

When in Filmstrip Focus mode (1) the Bridge browser displays a preview of the currently selected thumbnail in the content area of the screen. This workspace setup allows the user to review a group ofimages quickly and easily while takingtime to overview a larger preview for editing purposes.

Jump to a horizontal version (2) of the Filmstrip Focus mode by clicking the Switch Orientation button at the bottom right of the content area in CS2 (3) and via the pop-up menu options at the top right of the Filmstrip panel in CS3 (4).

You can switch to other view modes by making a different selection from the Window > Workspace menu.

Photoshop contains a Context menu system which provides a pop-up menu of options when you right-click (Ctrl-click - single button Mac) over an image, tool, selection or palette.

Context menus are not available for all items in the workspace.

The Contiguous option is available in tools that base their changes or selection on locating pixels of a specific color in a photo. The option can be found in the option bars of both the Magic Wand and Paint Bucket tools and controls how the pixels are selected throughout the image.

Choosing Contiguous will restrict the selection to those pixels adjacent to where the tool was first clicked on the image surface (1).

Turn the setting off and the tools will locate similar colored pixels throughout the whole photo irrespective of whether they are connected to the pixel first selected (2).

The term continuous tone refers to pictures that have a range of tones and colors that move seamlessly from one to another. Traditionally this term was used to describe photographs (black and white or color) and to distinguish them from those images printed in magazines, whose tones are created with a series of dots.

Digital photographs, whether displayed on screen or output in printed form, give the appearance of a continuous tone picture even though the photograph is entirely created of very small blocks called pixels.

It is important to maintain the appearance of continuous tone in our photographs throughout the editing and enhancement process. Sometimes the extreme correction needed for poorly exposed pictures causes the colors and tones of the photograph to lose the continuous appearance and become posterized.

An active selection can be altered and adjusted using the options listed under the Select > Modify menu.

One option is the Contract command which reduces the size of the selection by the number of pixels entered into the feature’s dialog.

If the selection incorporates part of the document edge this part of the marquee will not be changed by the command.

It is generally better to apply this command via the Refine Edge dialog as the version that appears in the new feature previews the changes you make.

The contrast of a picture refers to how the tones are distributed between black and white points.

A low contrast photograph can appear dull and generally contains no pure black or white points anywhere in the image. A high contrast picture does contain the black and white tones but, in extreme examples where too much contrast exists, subtle shadow and highlight details disappear as they are represented as either black or white.

Picture contrast can be adjusted in Photoshop by using features such as Auto Levels, Curves, Auto Contrast, Brightness/Contrast, Levels and Shadows/ Highlights.

The concept of non-destructive editing is ever growing in popularity and acceptance. Now, many dedicated amateurs are working like professionals by embracing ways of enhancing and editing that don’t destroy or change the original pixels in the end result.

Photoshop CS3 includes a new filtering option called Smart Filters and yes, you guessed it, this technology allows you to apply a filter to an image non-destructively. You can even adjust how the filter interacts with the image by selecting from a range of blend modes as well.

Based around the Smart Object technology first introduced into Photoshop in CS2, applying a Smart Filter is a two-step process.

1. First the image layer needs to be converted to a Smart Object. This can be done via the new entry in the Filter menu, Convert for Smart Filters, or by selecting the image layer and then choosing Layer > Smart Objects > Convert to Smart Objects.

2. Next, pick the filter you want to apply and adjust the settings as you would normally before clicking OK.

The tutorial section at the front of the book contains a step-by-step technique that uses Smart Filters for non-destructive editing.

Photoshop contains many features that work with 16-bit files and 32-bit documents, but there are other tools and options that can only be applied to an 8-bit file.

To use these features you will need to convert your file to 8 bits per channel before accessing the tool. Do this by selecting Image > Mode > 8 Bits/Channel.

The Edit > Convert to Profile (1) option changes the color values of the original image to match the newly selected color space. The dialog displays the current space of the image - Source Space (2), provides a drop-down menu of choices for the Destination Space (3), Engine (4) and Intent (5) conversion options as well as checkboxes for Black Point Compensation, Dither and Flatten Image (6).

You can also choose to attach a different ICC profile to an image by selecting the Edit > Assign Profile option. This feature lets you assign the chosen color space to the picture without changing the value of the image’s colors to the profile.

Just like other computer software (word processing and spreadsheet software) Photoshop contains the standard Copy and Paste commands.

Located under the Edit menu, the Copy option duplicates the contents of the picture parts in the current selection and stores it in the Clipboard memory of the computer.

Copying is usually the first step in the process; the next action is usually to paste the picture part into the same or a new document. This step is handled by the Edit

> Paste command.

Just like the Copy command, the Copy Merged option copies the contents of a selection, but the difference is that this command also copies and merges the content of all the layers in the document. This feature is particularly helpful for creating a single layer copy of a multilayered composition but without merging or flattening the original.

Go to the tutorial section at the front of the text for a step-by-step technique using the Copy Merged command.

The Craquelure fi lter is one of the options in the Texture group of fi lters. The feature creates an effect that looks as if the picture has been created on a surface of cracked mud.

Three slider controls can be found in the fi lter dialog. The Crack Spacing (1) controls the distance between crack edges, the Crack Depth (2) adjusts the width of the crack line and its shadow, and the Crack Brightness (3) determines how dominant or strong the crack lines will appear in the fi nal result.

This feature, new to the Photoshop CS edition of the program, appeared a few years ago in the software that was used with flatbed scanners.

It automatically detects the edges of a photo, which may have been scanned a little crooked and with too much background surroundings, and crops off the waste pixels. It also rotates the image if the picture was scanned at an angle like this example.

An on-the-fly cropping technique that is an alternative to using the Crop tool starts with drawing a regular rectangular selection or marquee to define the size and shape of the crop (1).

Once the area has been selected the Crop option is chosen from the Image menu (2).

The picture parts outside the selection marquee are removed or cropped.

One of the many print options available in the Photoshop Print with Preview dialog is the ability to add crop marks to a print. These vertical and horizontal lines provide a visual indication where the edge of the picture is on the paper.

The crop marks are generally used to aid with trimming the excess paper from the surrounds of the print.

To add crop marks to your print check the Corner Crop Marks option from the Output settings in the Print Preview dialog.

The act of cropping or removing parts of a picture that are unwanted is a skill that most digital photographers use regularly.

Photoshop has a specially designed cropping feature called the Crop tool. Cropping is a simple matter of drawing a rectangle around the parts of the picture that you wish to keep, leaving the sections that will be removed outside of the marquee. The areas outside the cropping marquee are shaded a specific color (usually semitransparent black) to allow the viewer to imagine the results of the crop.

To help with fine adjustments the edges and corners of the cropping marquee contain small squares called handles. The marquee can be resized or reshaped at any time by click-dragging one of the handles. When you are satisfied with your crop you can execute the command by double-clicking your cursor inside the cropping marquee, pushing the Enter key or clicking on the ‘tick’ in the options bar.

1. The settings entered into the width, height and resolution sections of the Crop tool’s options bar remain until you click the Clear button.

2. If you want the dimensions and resolution of an image to become the settings used to crop a second picture then select the original and click the Front Image button. The picture’s characteristics are input into the settings area of the tool ready for the next crop.

The Crosshatch filter is one of the options in the Brush Strokes group of filters. The feature recreates the color and different tones in the picture using crosshatching or a series of overlapping strokes.

Three slider controls can be found in the filter dialog. The Stroke Length (1) controls the length of the crosshatching stroke, the Sharpness (2) adjusts how crisp the edge of the stroke appears and the Strength (3) determines how obvious the effect is to the

The tool pointer or cursor that is displayed when working with Photoshop tools can be changed to a range of options. Setting up the default pointer style is controlled via the options in the Edit > Preferences > Displays & Cursors dialog. Here you can select from the following cursor options:

Standard - The pointer is displayed as the Tool icon.

Precise - The pointer is displayed as a set of cross hairs.

Normal Brush Tip - The pointer is displayed at 50% of the size of the brush tip.

Full Size Brush Tip - The pointer is displayed in the size and shape of the current brush tip.

Show Cross hair in Brush Tip - Places the cross hair at the center of the currently selected brush tip.

The Caps Lock key switches the cursor between Brush Size and its original setting.

Curves is an advanced tonal control that is a favorite with experienced users and offers the most accurate contrast, color and brightness adjustments of any Photoshop feature.

Its dialog (1) has a graph with vertical and horizontal scales representing input and output brightness. When you first open this you'll see a straight line running through the graph at 45° from the bottom left to the top right.

The bottom left represents the shadow area (2), top right is highlights (4) and the midpoint is midtones (3). You can drag the line by clicking on it and holding down as you move the mouse. Moving the midpoint up has a lightening effect (5) and down darkens the image. Use the Eyedropper tool and Ctrl/Cmd-click anywhere on the image and its Brightness value will appear as a point on the line. You can then move this point up or down to darken or lighten that part of the image. The picture will

look natural, providing you create either a straight line or an arc. The best results are usually achieved with a very shallow S-shaped curve (6), and is the reason why it’s called Curves. This Curve is made by pushing the curve in a slight downward direction of the 3/4 shadow areas and a slight upward movement of the first quarter highlight areas, creating a very gentle S shape. This gives a boost to contrast without clipping shadow or highlight detail that could occur when Levels or Brightness/ Contrast is used.

You can reverse the graph if you prefer the shadow detail to be at the top right and the highlights at the bottom left by clicking on the arrow on the horizontal bar in CS2 or selecting the Show Amount of Pigment setting in the Curve Display Option section of the CS3 Curves dialog.

Since Photoshop CS2 Curves has also appeared as an adjustment option in the Adobe Camera Raw feature.

New for CS3

The Curves feature in Photoshop CS3 has been completely revamped. You can now preview highlight and shadow clipping in

two different ways - by selecting the Show Clipping option (7) in the feature’s dialog or by the Alt/Option key as you move the new input sliders at the bottom of the graph. Sound familiar? Well it should. This is how we have been previewing the clipping in Levels for years. Now that this option is available in Curves there will no longer be the need to adjust your black and white points in Levels first before tweaking your midtones in Curves. The whole process can be handled in the one dialog.

As well as much needed clipping options, the revamped Curves feature also includes several settings grouped together in the Curve Display Options (10) at the bottom of the dialog. You can select between displaying the Light input/output values, which for most people will be the default mode, or the input/output values of Ink. The second option effectively flips the position of the black and white values on the graph.

Also grouped here are options to display a histogram in the back of the Curves graph area, a straight line curve called the Baseline, which represents the result when input values equal output values, and Channel Overlays where each of the

individual color curves are displayed along with the usual composite line. In providing these additional View options Adobe has succeeded in giving photographers what they demand most - information about their pictures! Information is key to making the right decisions about editing or enhancing steps and adding these features to a powerful tool such as Curves means that the decisions you make here are well informed.

Though the ability to save specific curve adjustments was present in the last incarnation of the tool, this function has been extended in the Photoshop CS3. Now when you save a custom curve it automatically becomes an entry in the Curves Preset menu (top of the dialog). As well as saved adjustments the Preset list also includes nine general enhancement choices ranging from Cross Processing effects to adjusting contrast and brightness.

The new Preset menu contains nine general tonal adjustments as well as the option to add saved custom entries to the list.

• 1. Original image
• 2. Color Negative
• 3. Cross Process
• 4. Darker
• 5. Increase Contrast
• 6. Lighter
• 7. Linear Contrast
• 8. Medium Contrast
• 9. Negative
• 10. Strong Contrast
• 11. Custom

Images produced to be used on the Web need small file sizes. Photoshop reduces the number of colors from millions down to just 256 when it saves files as GIFs and the colors that are used can be saved as a custom table. This photo of canal boats would contain these 256 colors when reduced.

The Custom filter is one of the options in the Other group of filters. The feature allows the user to create, save, load and share their own customized filter effects.

The filter dialog contains a grid of text boxes into which you can enter numbers that will alter the brightness of the pixels that the filter is applied to. Values from -999 to +999 can be entered into any of the boxes. Values don’t have to be entered into all boxes.

The central box (1) represents the pixels being evaluated, with the values placed in those around the center being adjustments made to the surrounding pixels.

The Custom Shape tool is one of the group of shape tools that includes rectangle, ellipse, rounded rectangle, polygon and line. All these drawing options create hard-edged, or vector-based, graphics.

The Custom Shape tool allows you to draw a variety of pre-made shapes. After selecting the tool and picking the fill color, you draw the shape by clicking and dragging the mouse. Different shapes can be selected from the drop-down thumbnail list under the Shape preview in the options bar. A new layer is created automatically for each new shape. This layer is made up of two parts - the ‘Fill’ and the ‘Path’. Double-clicking the Fill icon will give you the opportunity to change the color. After clicking the Path icon you can edit the shape using the Direct Selection tool.

The tool’s options include:

Unconstrained - Set width and height by dragging the mouse.

Defined Proportions - Only allows shape drawings of a specific proportion. Defined Size - Draws the shape at the size that the shape was initially created.

Fixed Size - The shape is drawn according to the size settings you input.

From Center - Draws the shape from the center outwards rather than from a corner.

The keystrokes used to activate a menu selection or Photoshop command can be customized or changed via the Keyboard Shortcuts editor.

You can access the editor via the Keyboard

Shortcuts entry in the Edit menu.

As part of the standard editing control group, which also includes the Paste and Copy commands, the Cut option removes image parts to the clipboard. A selection must be made first before using the command. After cutting the selection, the contents of the selection area are filled with the background color (1) or in the case of cutting a background layer the selection area is filled with transparency.

The picture parts cut to the clipboard can then be pasted down as a new layer in the same file or used as a basis for the creation of a new document. With a selection still active, pressing the Delete key will perform the same function as the Edit > Cut command except that using the Cut command will put the image on the clipboard, whereas pressing the Delete key will not.

The Cutout filter is one of the options in the Artistic group of filters. The feature recreates the tone and shape of the original photo using a series of flat areas of color similar to pieces of ‘cutout’ paper. Three slider controls can be found in the dialog. The Number of Levels (1) controls the number of colors, Edge Simplicity (2) adjusts how much detail will be in the edge of the flat areas and the Edge Fidelity (3) determines how flat the edge detail will be.