Diagram of Landmarks The observable muscles and bony landmarks labeled on the illustration above are the most important for artists who want to draw the torso’s surface anatomy from the front view. Focus on accurately portraying these anatomical features to achieve a lifelike drawing, such as the example at right.

Trunk Muscles The torso’s movement is dependent on and restricted by the spine—both the chest and the pelvis twist and turn on this fixed, yet flexible, column. And the relationship between the rib cage, the shoulders, and the pelvis creates the shape of the trunk muscles. The pectoral (breast) muscles are divided by the sternum, the rectus abdominus is divided by the linea alba, and the external obliques—which are interwoven with the serratus anterior—bind the eight lowest ribs to the pelvic girdle.

Drawing Tips Use the bony skeletal landmarks, which are apparent despite the layers of muscles, to guide the placement of the features. For example, the nipples align vertically with the anterior spines of the iliac crest. Note also that the pectoralis major sweeps across the chest and over to the arm, ending nearly horizontal to the nipples.

Diagram of Landmarks The observable muscles and bony landmarks labeled on the illustration above are the most important for artists who want to draw the torso’s surface anatomy from the rear view. Focus on accurately rendering these anatomical markers to achieve a lifelike drawing, such as the example at right.

Trunk Muscles The back has many overlapping muscles; our focus will be on the upper layer, which is more immediately apparent to the eye. The trapezius connects the skull to the scapula (shoulder blade) muscles—deltoid, infraspinatus, teres minor, and teres major—which connect to the arm. The latissimus dorsi attaches under the arm, extending to the pelvis. And the gluteus medius bulges at the hip before meeting with the gluteus maximus.

Drawing Tips Under the skin, back muscles are not easy to discern. However, the trapezius, 7th cervical vertebrae, spine of scapula, inner margin of scapula, deltoid, infraspinatus, and teres major are all fairly evident. To depict the nuchal ligament, 7th cervical vertebrae, spinal column, and sacral triangle, draw a long line and an upside-down triangle.

Diagram of Landmarks It is lack of fat in addition to degree of muscularity that determines surface definition. To render the female form, it’s important to become familiar with fat deposit areas, including the flank (iliac crest); buttocks (gluteus); and stomach (abdomin), especially below the navel. Mammary fat accounts for the smoothness of the breast.

Trunk Muscles The upper torso muscles—as well as the scapula, which is anchored by muscle to the spine, ribs, and arms—follow and influence all arm movement. Mid-torso muscles, such as external oblique, rectus abdominus, and latissimus dorsi, bend, twist, and stabilize the rib cage and pelvis. Muscles below the pelvic girdle activate the legs.

Drawing Tips Female figures display a more fluid contour than do male figures, largely because of the female’s extra fatty layer, which serves a reproductive purpose but also obscures muscular form. Muscular structure is basically the same for both sexes, but the width and angle of the pelvis makes the skeleton more recognizably male or female.

Simplified Figurette Sketching with simple lines and basic shapes is a good way to establish the base of a figure drawing.

Tips The nipples, 1 head-width apart, are vertically aligned with pelvic landmarks and diagonally aligned with the acromion processes.

Detail Note the relationship between the skeletal and muscular structures (A). The linea alba (interrupting tendons) of the rectus abdominis create a “six pack” appearance as they arch progressively higher toward the sternum (B). Two of the interrupting tendons line up with the 10th rib and the navel (C).

BACK VIEW

Trapezoids represent the overall bone structure of the torso from both front and rear views. Here you can see the same three-part division.

This simplified sketch from the back view includes an important feature: a line from the 7th cervical vertebrae to the sacral triangle.

On an erect figure, the bones of both the lower ribs and the upper spine are apparent, whereas the lumbar region looks like a furrow.

The shape of the trapezius is similar to that of a kite (A) or a four-pointed star (C). The simplified shape of the latissimus dorsi suggests the appearance of an upside-down triangle (B), with a diamond-shaped sheath removed from its upside-down apex (D).

SIDE VIEW

The simplified torso from the side view has a bean-shaped appearance, but the same proportional divisions of the torso apply.

The simplified figurette in profile makes use of the bean and oval shapes that appear in the proportional drawing at left.

Each spinal segment curves more as the column descends toward the sacrum. The thoracic region has the longest curve.

The serratus anterior muscle starts alongside the first eight ribs, then ends at the inner margin of the scapula (A). Its main mass appears as a bulge underneath the latissimus dorsi (B). At the muscle’s origin (on the ribs), it looks a little like the fingers of a hand (C).

Muscles The upper and lower portions of the arm each consist of three major muscle masses. The bicep and brachialis of the upper arm bend the lower arm, the tricep (see page 31) straightens it, and the deltoid raises the entire arm. In the lower arm, the flexors (flexor carpi radiales, palmerus longus, and flexor carpi ulnaris) bend the palm and clench the fingers; the extensors on the back of the arm (see page 31) straighten the palm and open the fingers; and the supinators (brachioradialis, see page 31), attached to the outer epicondyle (D, figure 1) on the outside arm, rotate the hand outward. A fourth, smaller muscle, the pronator teres, rotates the palm inward.

Drawing Tips The bicep does not extend across the full width of the upper arm. The deltoid inserts in between the brachialis and the bicep.

Figure 2
Figure 3
Muscles Muscles work in opposing pairs: Flexors (see page 30, figures 2 and 3) pull and extensors extend, moving in the opposite direction. When a flexor or extensor muscle becomes active, its opposite becomes passive. From the back view, when the hand is pronate (illustrated in figures 2 and 3 above), extensor groups are the most prominent muscles. On the upper arm, the tricep is the most visible extensor. On the lower arm, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi ulnaris, and extensor digitorum, which all originate on the outer epicondyle, are evident.

Drawing Tips The tricep has three heads (the long and outer heads are shown here; the medial head lies beneath). All share a common tendon: a flattened form on the back of the upper arm.

DRAWING TIPS

The brachioradialis is responsible for turning the palm up (supinate), and the pronator teres (see page 30) for turning the palm down (pronate). The radius (shaded) rotates around the fixed ulna, permitting pronation and supination of the palm.

The span between the inside bend of the elbow and the wrist is usually about one hand length. The arrows show the inward and outward curvature of the muscles, and the dashed line shows the line of the ulna, called the “ulnar furrow.”

Muscles The flexor tendons (A, B, C) from the forearm muscles (see page 30) extend into the hand. The teardrop-shaped muscle masses, the thenar eminence abductors of the thumb (I, J) and the hypothenar eminence abductor (D) and flexor (E) of the little finger, are known as the “palmer hand muscles.” The adductor of the thumb (G) lies under the flexor tendons (F). The visible creases of the palm result from the way the skin folds over the fat and muscles of the hand.

BACK

Bones From this view of the hand, all the same bones are visible, but the carpal bones appear convex rather than concave. From this angle, the bones have more influence on the shape of the fleshed-out hand.

Muscles Whereas the palm side of the hand is muscular and fatty, the back of the hand is bony and full of tendons. The extensor tendons of the thumb (A) are visible when contracted, as are the other four extensor tendons (C). The first dorsal interosseous (B) is the largest of the four dorsal interosseous muscles, and it is the only one that shows its form through the skin’s surface; when the thumb is flexed, this muscle appears as a bulging teardrop shape.

Muscles The upper leg has four major muscle masses: vastus externus, which attaches to the knee cap (E); rectus femoris, which engulfs the patella (E) and continues toward the tibial tuberosity (F); vastus internus, a medial bulge; and the adductor group on the inside of the leg. There also are two other masses: the tensor fascia lata and the sartorius. The sartorius is the longest muscle in the body. The lower leg has six long muscles visible: gastrocnemius, protruding on both sides; tibialis anterior, running along the shin toward the big toe; soleus; flexor digitorum longus; extensor digitorum longus; and peroneus longus.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3
Drawing Tips The legs angle in toward the middle, positioning the body’s weight over the gravitational center. (See figures 1 and 2.) The muscle masses on the outside of the leg are higher than those on the inside. (See figure 3.) The ankles are just the reverse—high inside, low outside.

Muscles The upper leg consists of five large muscle masses: gluteus maximus; gluteus medius; the hamstring group (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus); the adductor group; and the vastus externus, which can be seen peeking out from behind the biceps femoris.
The lower leg also features five masses: three larger ones and two smaller. The larger masses are the two heads of the calf: the gastrocnemius and the Achilles tendon, which connects to the heel bone. The two smaller masses are the inner soleus and outer soleus. Also notice the hollow area behind the knee where the calf tendons attach, called the “popliteal fossa”; this fatty hollow makes deep knee bends possible.

Figure 1

Figure 2
Drawing Tips The calf is lower and rounder on the inside than it is on the outside. (See figure 1.)
The hamstring tendons grip below the knee on both sides, almost like a pair of tongs. (See figure 2.)

In the lower leg, the forms to look for are the gastrocnemius; the long, straight form of the Achilles tendon; the peroneus longus tendon, which passes behind the outer malleolus (I) and the bulk of the extensor digitorum longus; and the tibialis anterior, toward the front of the leg.

Figure 1

Figure 3
Drawing Tips The six arrows in figure 1 show the overall gesture of the leg. The upper thigh and lower calf create the gesture. (See figure 2.) Figure 3 shows the pattern of tendons in the foot. (See page 19.)

Muscles When the foot is flexed upward, these tendons are evident: extensor digitorum longus (1), extensor digitorum brevis (2), tibialis anterior (3), and extensor hallucis longus (4). (From the side view, extensor digitorum brevis appears as a round shape inside a triangular pocket.) Peroneus longus (6) curves around the ankle, whereas abductor digiti minimi (7) appears as a bulge on the outer side of the foot.
Drawing Tips The tibialis anterior (3) is an obvious landmark on the inverted foot. (See figure 1, above.) In figure 2, dorsi-flexion makes visible the extensor digitorum (1). In figure 3, plantar-flexion lets you see the tendons of peroneus (6).

FRONT VIEW

Most of the facial muscles originate from bone and insert into muscle fibers of other facial muscles. They do not create surface form directly, as the skeletal muscles do, because they are much more delicate and usually concealed by facial fat. The visible forms on the face are created by several factors—skin, fatty tissue, underlying skull, cartilage, eyeballs, and some muscles.

SIDE VIEW

A. frontalis
B. temporalis
C. obicularis oculi
D. nasalis
E. levator labii superioris
F. zygomaticus minor
G. zygomaticus major
H. masseter
I. risorius
J. depressor anguli oris
K. depressor labii inferioris
L. mentalis
M. obicularis oris
N. procerus
O. occipitalis
P. trapezius
Q. sternocleidomastoid

FRONT VIEW

Simplifying the Features When facial muscles contract, they affect the shape of the fatty forms, skin, and other facial muscles, causing the wrinkles, furrows, ridges, and bulges that convey various facial expressions. Simplifying these complex shapes into easily recognizable geometric planes (the “planes of the head”) can help guide an artist in the proper placement of light and shadow. As an artist, there’s no need to actually sketch the planes, but it helps to understand the planes and visualize them when approaching complex features and shading.

Visualizing Light and Shadow In this final stage, light and shadow are translated from simple planes onto a more subtle, realistic portrait. Self-portraiture is a great way to practice identifying the planes of the head from many different angles. Using a mirror as reference, focus on the placement of the light and dark values that create the form of your face. Just remember to draw what you really see in the mirror, not what you expect to see.

The Lips Because the lips curve around the cylinder of the teeth, it’s helpful to draw and shade the mouth as if it were a sphere.

The Nose The nose is made up of bone, cartilage, and fatty tissue. Halfway down from the eyebrows, cartilage replaces the bone.

The Ear Think of the ear as an oval disc divided into three sections and placed on a diagonal angle.