Index
Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” refer to figures and tables, respectively.
0-9, and symbols
100% renewable energy scenarios
A
estimated global warming impacts,
936t
maximum daily temperatures in,
920,
921f
numbers of people affected by changes under,
928
population projections for,
921–922
concentrators and ray intensity at,
500f
in operating collectors,
483
in stalled collectors,
482f
Absorption
of radiation in Earth-atmosphere system,
62,
170–171
Active solar heating,
472
Activity coefficient,
301
Adenosine diphosphate/triphosphate (ADP/ATP),
311–312
Adiabatic temperature gradient,
53
Aggregation
over social settings,
896,
896
greenhouse gas emission impacts on,
929–930
impact estimation for,
918
Air
Airfoils,
385,
385–386,
386,
386,
386–387,
386f,
387–389,
388f,
389–390,
394–395
anthropogenic influence on climate and,
166
influence on rejected solar radiation,
230
of land surfaces,
71,
72f
of water surface,
71,
72f
Alkaline electrolyte batteries,
628
DC conversion losses,
574
superconducting line losses,
574
Altitude
particle density and,
82,
83f
temperature, pressure, and density variations by,
80f,
81f
biogas production and,
531
Ammonium nitrate (NH
4NO
3),
155
Angular distributions of light,
91
Angular momentum transport,
105,
107f
Annual precipitation
Anthropogenic heat flux,
32–33
Anthropogenic interference
Atlantic Ocean
average annual temperature and salinity in,
120f,
121–123
Atmosphere
aerosol content and global temperatures,
170
gaseous constituents of,
80,
82f
spectral absorption efficiency of,
89,
89f
latitudinal energy transport,
98,
98
momentum exchange processes with oceans and,
183–184
altitude and density of,
82,
83f
size distribution of,
83f
particulate matter in,
80–81
radiation absorption and scattering in,
85–86,
146
solar energy processes in,
79–113
energy transfer processes,
96–99
stored energy types in,
93–94
temperature, pressure, and density variations by altitude,
80f,
81f
temperature distribution in,
173f
Atmosphere–ocean boundary, CO
2 transfer across,
154
Atmosphere-to-ocean/continent boundary, water fluxes across,
114–115
Atmospheric fixation,
156
Atmospheric heat source function,
189–191
Atmospheric motion
Atoms
Attenuation of solar radiation,
683
Augmenters
Available potential energy,
148,
246
Axial interference factor,
384,
412
B
Balance of foreign debts,
874
Base-load power units,
753,
755
wind power operating as,
764
alkaline electrolyte,
628
status of technology,
974
Benson-Bassham-Calvin cycle,
313–314
Bias, of semiconductor junction,
443
Bioenergy conversion processes,
519–554
status of technology,
972
Biofuels,
Japan and South Korea potentials,
812
biological conversion into,
545–552
in North America 2060 scenario,
801f
production of, in 2050 scenario,
715–718
environmental effects,
539
fertilizer from production waste,
537
greenhouse gas emissions,
539
pipeline transmission of,
575
production emissions,
535
status of technology,
972
Biogas production
Biological energy conversion and storage,
308–343
green plant photosynthesis,
309–312
photosynthesis,
309–333,
309–312,
310f,
311f,
312–330,
313f,
315f,
316f,
317f,
318f,
319f,
320f,
321f,
322f,
323f,
324f,
325f,
326f,
326f,
327f,
328f,
329f,
330f,
346–347
Biomass
biological conversion to gaseous fuels,
528–538
cultivated land production of,
713–714
current standing crops of,
19
East Asia potential production,
815f
edible and non-edible,
553
efficiency of production,
332
hydrogen-producing cultures and,
539–541
hydrogen production from,
621
impact on food supply of energy uses,
714
impacts of combustion of,
524,
524t
non-food energy uses,
519f
in North America 2060 scenario,
797–799
North America average potentials,
799f
rangeland production of,
718
solar radiation in production of,
147
status of technology,
972
thermochemical gasification,
540–541
urban refuse as source of,
523
Biomass energy, ,
anthropogenic interference in,
915
energy flow to human society from,
149
spectral distributions of,
60
Blade-element theory of wind converters,
401
Boundary layer of Earth,
99
Break-even capital cost,
865
Breeding of fissile material,
305
Building
wind-harvesting devices integrated with,
420
Building heat losses,
727,
729
Buildings, heat losses through surfaces of,
727,
727–729
Business-as-usual scenario,
199
Butanol–isopropanol mixtures,
545
C
Capacity factor, photovoltaic solar power production cost and,
15–16
climate stability and emissions levels,
967t
CO2-neutrality,
combustion production of,
522
effects of anthropogenic emissions,
914–915
influence on biomass production,
332
in joint ocean–atmosphere models,
126–127
per-country emissions targets,
964
regional per capita emissions,
966f
Carbon nanofilter stores,
514
as ideal of thermodynamic engine cycles,
365
isothermal expansion process inf,
362,
362
Cast iron, heat storage in,
589
Catastrophe precursor scenario,
656
Catenary-shaped collectors,
498–502
enzymatic decomposition of,
552–554
ethanol production from,
547
Centralized biofuel production,
718,
720f
Cesium, in thermionic generators,
371
Change, marginal or systemic,
909
Characteristic of solar cell,
447f,
460
Charge/discharge cycles of storage,
767,
768f
Chemical energy of solutions,
300
Chemical reaction heat storage,
597–600
Chemical transformation heat storage,
591–600
China
average annual solar radiation,
813f
hydropower average annual potential,
814f
offshore wind potential,
816f
wind power average annual potential,
814f
atmospheric heat source function,
189–191
basic equations in terms of time-averaged variables,
184–189
energy conversion processes in atmosphere,
193–194
in 4th and 5th IPCC assessments,
197–205
in early history of Earth,
161
numbers of people affected by,
928
socioeconomic costs of,
856
vector-borne diseases and,
930
Climatic forecasting,
102
temperature trends for Earth surface,
158f
direct solar radiation dependence on,
223,
225f
influence on solar radiation,
169,
244
power plant start-up time,
753
Combined power and heat producing systems,
539,
723–745
Combustion
carbon dioxide production in,
522
as chemical reaction,
597
estimating greenhouse-warming externalities for,
934–935
Communicating with decision-makers,
909–912
Community-size heat storage facilities,
580–588
Community size solar heating system,
583
Comparison of energy system costs,
865
Compartment transfer models,
908
Compressors, in heat pumps,
376
Concentrating collectors,
490f
photo-thermoelectric generators with,
493f
Concentration ratio of solar collector,
491–492
on flat-plate collectors,
498
for solar-thermal electricity generators,
496–502
Condensation processes,
159,
295
Conduction mobility,
446f
Conductivity, of atmosphere,
307,
307
Coniferous forests, albedo of,
166
Construction, energy use,
672
Context
Continental topography,
109
in joint ocean–atmosphere models,
126
Convective energy transfer,
52,
53,
93
Copaifera langsdorffii,
546
Cows, heat production by,
527,
528f
food productivity of,
716f
fraction of area used for,
711f
Cross wind–induced velocity,
411f,
412
Currency exchange rates,
852
Currents
geographical distribution,
266
power duration curves,
270f
D
Decentralization of energy supply,
688
Decentralized biofuel production,
718,
720f
Decentralized solar generation,
981
Decision-makers, communicating with,
909–912
Decision-making, process of,
912,
912f
Demand modeling
Demand scenarios
end-use precursor scenarios,
654
intermediary system efficiency,
657–658
Denitrifying bacteria,
156
Density-averaging method,
185
Desert regions, ambient temperatures in,
502
Development and energy use/supply,
25,
30
height and latitude distribution of,
189f
AC conversion losses,
574
Direct current transmission,
572
Direct health impacts of warming,
918–929
Direct hydrogenation, of coal,
529
Direct methanol PEM fuel cell,
514–515
Direct photosynthetic production of hydrocarbons,
546
estimates for scenario construction,
683
geographical distribution of,
244
Direct thermoelectric conversion,
368–372
Dispatch optimization,
653
Distribution and service sector, energy use,
673
Distribution key for profits,
876–877
Distribution problems, in economic theory,
857–858
Diurnal temperature variations,
502,
502
Donor solvent process,
529
Doping of semiconductor material,
439–440
Draught animals, energy delivered by,
27–28
Dry rock heat accumulation,
294
Ducted rotors wind turbines,
415–417
E
Earth
albedo at surface of,
72f
atmosphere, solar energy processes in,
79–113
disposition of solar radiation at,
59–79,
70f
energy of materials forming,
19
gravitational energy of,
19
processes near surface of,
79–142
radiation sources,
58,
59f
recoverable chemical and nuclear energy of,
19
solar energy processes near surface of,
79–142
surface re-radiation from,
146
Earth–atmosphere system
average solar flux for,
32–33
net energy flux components,
98,
99f
radiation absorbed by,
62
radiation equilibrium,
62
vertical energy transport in boundary layer of,
99–100
East Asia
average annual solar radiation,
813f
average annual wind power potential,
812,
814f
biomass production potentials,
815f
hydropower average annual potential,
812,
814f
Ecological food and hygiene products,
971
Economic activity
local and national economies,
872–879
regional and global economy,
879–880
Economic framework for energy systems,
851–871
cost profiles and break-even prices,
864–869
interest and present value,
860–864
Ecosystems
estimation of impacts on,
918
greenhouse gas emission impacts on,
929–930
Eddies
large-scale transport by,
185
Eddy diffusion coefficient,
107
Education, energy use and,
672
Effective interest rate,
860
Efficiency
of biological conversion and storage,
330–332
of concentrating collectors,
492f
of photo-thermoelectric converters,
495,
496f
of production from livestock,
715
of rangeland and livestock,
715,
719f
of solar cells
of wind turbines
Electrical conductors,
438
Electrical insulators,
438
ocean salinity gradient conversion for,
517–519
Electricity
Electricity production
quality of wind-produced electricity,
685–708
wind turbine/synchronous d.c. generator,
689–694
with use of ocean thermal gradients,
288–291
Electricity usage, time distribution of,
422–423,
774
in solid electrolyte cells,
516
Electromagnetic radiation, in Sun,
50
Electron density difference,
469f
Electrons
Electrostatic filters,
524
Electrostatic interactions,
48
Emission current of electrons,
371–372
estimated, for 1994,
663t
End-use precursor scenarios,
654–656
Energy
See also specific sources
geothermal flows and stored,
293–300
Energy and matter flows
vertical transport in atmosphere,
176–184
Energy balance
Energy collection
Energy conservation, law of,
100
Energy conversion processes,
20,
20,
94,
107–108,
142–143,
358t,
368–381,
519–554See also Solar energy conversion,
Wind energy conversion,
Wave energy conversion
irreversible thermodynamics,
360–362
human society uses of,
149,
149
quasi-steady-state approximations of,
652,
682
thermodynamic engine cycles,
365–368
break-even capital cost,
865
in Mediterranean 2050 model,
794,
795f
Energy exchange
atmosphere-ocean momentum exchange,
183–184
sensible heat, in flat-plate collectors,
479
Energy flux concentration ratio,
491–492
Energy fluxes
in atmosphere, total,
94–95
components in atmosphere of,
191,
191f
in convective energy transfer,
52,
53
Earth–atmosphere system components,
98,
99f
other than solar origin,
21
Energy industry privatization,
880–883
Energy planning, methodology of,
649–653
Energy policy implementation,
718–723
Energy production
oil and natural gas production,
30
trends in distribution of use,
28f,
29
of solar radiation,
56–59
differential equation for,
652
annual charge/discharge cycles,
767,
768f
capacity requirements for peak-load operation,
770f
in flat-plate collectors with heat storage,
484–488
solar heat-supply system,
484
wind electricity systems with energy storage,
746–765
Energy system planning
simulation consistency and,
722–723
system choice and optimization,
721,
722f
time variable in scenarios,
651–653
Energy transfer processes
Energy transport equations, for Sun,
49–54
Energy transport processes,
93
climate impacts and,
30–32
environmental and social issues role in,
32–34
food and water needs and,
669,
774
fossil fuel industry influences on,
33
historical, in Northern Europe,
24–25,
24f
per capita, for “full goal satisfaction”,
662t
biologically acceptable surroundings,
662–668
patterns of time variations,
679–682
relative to 1994 usage estimates,
678f
temperature distribution of,
108
for year-2050 scenario,
664t
Engine conversion of solar energy,
372–375
irreversible thermodynamics and,
360,
361
Environmental heat, ,
3–5
Environmental radiation,
59–79
Environmental values, quantification of,
856–857
Enzymatic decomposition, of cellulose,
552–554
Equilibrium condensation model,
295
Equilibrium states, free energy and,
361,
361
socioeconomic impacts,
549
Euphorbia plant genus,
546
European Commission,
34,
908
externality calculation policies,
902,
932
External diseconomies,
856
difficulties presenting study results,
912
imports and exports and,
889
statistical value of life in calculating,
902–903
Extragalactic radiation,
59,
59f
Extreme temperatures, impact of,
918
F
for hydrogen production,
621
Fertilizer production and use,
155
biogas production waste as,
537
5th Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel IPCC,
197–205
Fire
energy conversion rate,
22
First-generation biofuels,
549,
553
Fischer-Tropsch process,
528,
553
Fixed price calculation,
860