Fixed prices, 854
Fixprice method, 854, 857–858
Fixprice system, 854
Flat-plate collectors, 242, 475–481, 476f, 484–488, 579f, 585, 652–653
concentrators on, 498
efficiency curve for, 577–578, 579f
tracking, 488
with heat storage, 484–488
Flavodoxin, 329, 330f
Flexprice method, 854, 857–858
Flexprice system, 854
Flooding, 932f
Flow batteries, 631–632
Flow-driven mechanical energy converters, 381–389
Fluctuations
in data, 682
Fluidized bed combustion, 523–524
Fluidized bed gasifiers, 544, 544f
Fluorocarbons, 88
Flux, of radiation, 21–22
Flywheels, 605–607, 606f, 980
constant-stress disk, 607–608
materials, 610, 610–611, 611t
other shapes, 608–610, 611f
performance, 610–612
Flywheel storage, 979
Focusing solar collectors, 488–502, 504–505
energy collection from, 491–493
energy flux concentration ratio, 491–492
Food and water demands, 669
Food chains, 333–334, 346–347
Food energy, 12–14, 13f, 14f
average human intake of, 21
human requirements for, 21
Food energy production, 12–14
Food energy requirement of man, 21
Food intake
in 2050 scenario, 669, 670f, 670f, 774
biomass energy impact on, 714
Food production, 708–715
in global energy scenario
animal-based, 830, 831f
vegetable-based, 828–830, 829f, 830, 830t
Forcings, 199
Forecasts, 650
Foreign debt, 874
Foreign payments balance, 874
Forestry
biofuels from, 717–718, 718, 719f
impact estimation for, 918
residues from, 553, 717–718
Forests, 29
fraction of area occupied by, 712f
Forward bias, 443
Forward chains, 887f
Fossil biomass, 540, 545
Fossil fuels, 3, 149
chain calculation for, 904
CO2 emissions from, 154
energy use influenced by industry, 33
known reserves of, 521, 521t
LCA of power-production chains using, 935–938, 939t
phase-out of, 963–970
per-capita approach, 963–964, 968–970
per country emission targets approach, 964
present usage, 946
production costs, 17–18
recoverable reserves, 152
taxes on, 33
uses of, 521
Foundations, offshore wind, 702–708
Fourier’s law, 362
4th Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel IPCC, 197–205, 915–916
Francis turbines, 382, 422, 422–423, 604, 604
Free energy, 301, 360, 360, 361, 505–507, 507–508
Free piston Stirling engine, 504–505, 504f
Free-stream-flow turbines, 382–385, 383f
Fresh biomass gasification, 542–545
Fresnel formula, 477–478
Fresnel lenses, 490f, 496
Fresnel reflectors, 489f
and lenses, 489, 489
Friction
atmospheric motion and, 93, 100, 113
in flywheels, 605
kinetic energy loss to, 147
Frictional dissipation
of tidal energy, 283
Friction velocity, 178
Fuel-based back-up systems
extrapolation model for simulating, 754–757
regulation of, 753–762
simulation results for, 757–759
Fuel-based power units
in back-up system simulation, 755, 756
start-up time, 753, 758f
Fuel cells, 505–507, 507–516, 771
alkaline, 512, 625
design of, 512–516
direct methanol PEM, 514–515
efficiency of, 509, 509–510
electrode potentials, 510–511, 510f
hydrogen–oxygen, 507f
ion-carrying polymers in, 464
molten carbonate, 515, 515
PEM, 513, 513, 513f
phosphoric acid, 512
reverse-mode, 421
reverse operation of, 511–512
reversible, 631–632
solid electrolyte, 516
status of technology, 974
vehicles powered by, 512–513, 514–515, 515f
Fuel generation, 420–421
Fuel production from biological material, 638
Fuels, energy density of, 623–624
Fuel transmission, 575
Fuel transportation, 569
Fuelwood, market prices, 15
Fukushima accident, 938–940, 942
Full-cost rule, 854
Fully tracking collectors, 488
Fusion energy, 19
Fusion energy sources, 306

G

GaAs solar cells, 459, 459
Gallium arsenide, 945
Gas constant, 48, 301, 374–375
Gaseous fuels
biomass conversion to, 528–538
pipeline transmission of, 575
Gasification, 528, 528, 715–717
of biomass, 621
catalytic, 541, 541f
environmental impacts of, 544–545
fresh biomass, 542–545
gasifier types, 544f
methods of, 540–541
plasma-arc, 620–621
thermochemical, 540–541
Gasoline
energy density, 514
ethanol as substitute for, 549
safety-related properties, 623t
sales prices, 17–18
Gas turbines, 367, 424, 974
Gearbox exchange ratio, 396–397
General circulation models, 157, 684
atmospheric, 109–113
joint ocean and atmosphere, 125–129
wind-forecasting models and, 761–762
Geographical information systems (GIS), 922–927
Geographical latitude, 61f
Geo-pressurized systems, 294
Geostrophic wind, 186, 247
Geothermal energy, 17f, 34, 34, 149, 293–294, 379f
conversion of, 378–381
heat transport equation, 181
hot springs, 149
origin of, 294–297
status of technology, 973
Geothermal flows and stored energy, 293–300
Geothermal heat fluxes, 183
Geothermal heat origins, 294–297
Gibbs potential, 361
solar constant and, 165
Glacier melt-off, 149
Glauber salt, 592, 593f
Global economy, 879–880
Global energy scenarios, 828–842
assumed supply balances, 832, 832t
energy imports and exports, 836f, 837f, 838f, 839f, 840f, 841f, 842f
food production in
animal-based, 830, 831f
vegetable-based, 828–830, 829f, 830, 830t
resource usage, 833t, 835f
trade patterns, 843f
Globalization, 33, 880
Global politics, 974–977
Global radiation, 230–231, 231–232, 232–234
Global temperature
impacts of, 30–32
modeling, 204, 204
rise, 30–32
Global warming, 708–713
estimated impacts from fuel combustion, 931–935
estimated impacts under A1B scenario, 936t
food production impact of, 708–713, 713
valuation of impacts, 937f
Goals of society, 30, 876, 879
Gondwana, 157–159
Gopher plant, 546
Governments, role of, See Public sector
Grandfathering, 934–935, 937t
Graphite nanofibers, 624
Grassland, 147
albedo of, 166
Gravitational constant g, 93–94
Gravitational force at Earth’s surface, 205
Gravity waves, 123–124, 207–208, 276
Gray-body emitters, 240
Gray surface, 475–476
Great Belt, 266–271
Green algae, 147
Green electricity, 971
Greenhouse effect, 3, 31, 63–64, 976–977
albedo and, 165–166
Greenhouse gas emissions, 539
greenhouse forcing, 915–916
life-cycle assessment, 913–918
Greenhouse gases, 30–31, 198, 198–199, 915, 915
biogas production and emissions of, 539
glaciation and, 162–163, 163
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126–127, 127
LCA of emission, 913–918
per-capita approach to emissions controls, 964, 968–970
Greenhouses, 474
Greenhouse warming
adaptation to, 970–971
additional annual mortality from, 927–928, 927f
anthropogenic effects in, 915–916, 917f
externality estimation for fuel combustion and, 934–935
extreme events and, 930–931, 932f, 934f
grandfathering issue and, 934–935, 937t
impacts of, 916–918
on agriculture, ecosystems, and silviculture, 929–930
monetized, 931–935, 935t, 937f
mitigation of, 963–970
fossil-fuel phase-out route for, 963–970
valuation of impacts of, 931–935, 935t, 937f
vector-borne diseases and, 930
Greenhouse-warming potential (GWP), 947–948
Green plants, 309–312
Gross national product, 852
Ground-level atmospheric pressure, 109–110, 111f
Ground state, 574
Group velocity of waves, 279
Guilds, 872
Gulf Stream, 380, 580

H

Haber process, 155
HADCM2-SUL model, 684
Hadley cells, 102–104, 111
Hadley model data, 688
Hartree-Foch self-consistent field calculation, 466–467
H-coal process, 529
Health, energy requirement, 774
Health impacts, 894
in LCA, 918–929
of temperature changes, 918–929
Health needs, energy use and, 671, 774
Heat capacity, 472–473, 485, 666
Heat capacity storage, 576–577
Heat energy conversion processes, 368–381
direct thermoelectric conversion, 368–372
engine conversion of solar energy, 372–375
geothermal energy, 378–381
ocean-thermal conversion, 380–381
PV panel hybrids with, 460–461
Heat engines, 357–359
Heat exchangers, 373–374, 378, 484
in flat-plate collectors with heat storage, 484, 484f, 485
fluid circulation rate and efficiency of, 485
in heat pumps, 377–378, 378f
in photo-thermoelectric converters, 493–494, 494f
in water heat storage, 577–578, 578f
Heat flow in pipes, 483
Heat flows, 286–308
atmospheric electricity, 307–308, 307f
distribution of smoothly varying part of, 297f
geothermal flows and stored energy, 293–300
geothermal heat origins, 294–297
nuclear energy, 303–306, 304f
ocean thermal gradients power, 288–291, 289f, 290f, 291f
regions of high, 293–294
solar-derived heat sources, 287–293
upper soil and air temperature gradients, 291–293, 292f
Heat flows and stores, 286–308
geothermal, 293–300
in oceans, 288–291, 300–303
in soil and air, 291–293
Heat flux
of anthropogenic origin, 32–33
geothermal, 183
Heat from interior of Earth, 19, 293
Heat generation, 421
biomass burning for, 522–525
solar thermal conversion, 472–474
Heating systems
geothermal, 293–300
heat pump, 375–378, 376
hot water, 577–578
solar, 377, 485
Heat islands, 149–151, 169
Heat loads, 726–731, 728f
domestic appliances and, 729–730
heat loss and, 729
human metabolism and, 729–730
of individual houses, 726–731, 728f
Heat loss
heat loads and, 729
for heat storage systems, 582, 582f
from pipe sections, 570
through building surfaces, 727, 727–729
ventilation and, 727–729, 729
Heat of fusion storage, 592
Heat pipes, 371, 572
Heat pumps, 149, 357, 375–378, 376, 731–732
decentralized, 569–570
heat exchange in, 377–378, 378f
modeling, 731–733
operation of, 375–377
solar heating with, 731–733, 732f
wind energy powering, 421
Heat source function, 189–191
Heat storage, 484f, 575–591
See also Energy storage, heat
aquifer, 586–588
chemical transformation, 591–600
chemical reactions, 597–600
salt hydrates, 592–597
community-size, 580–588
flat-plate collectors with, 484–488
heat capacity storage, 576–577
heat loss from, 582, 582f
latent heat, 591–600
materials other than water for, 585–586
medium- and high-temperature, 588–591
multi-unit systems, 585
solar ponds, 586–588
in solid metals, 589
system dynamics, 724
temperature stratification in, 584–585, 585f
underground containers for, 583, 584, 584
uninsulated, 585, 586f
water storage, 577–580, 578f
Heat transfer coefficient, 377–378, 484
Heat transmission
district heating lines, 569–572, 571f
heat loss from pipe sections, 570
heat pipes, 572
Heat usage
in buildings, 654, 786f
temperature distribution of, 679, 679f
Heat waves, 918, 918–919
Heliostats, 489f
Helium, 54–55
Helium fraction in Sun, 48
Helmholtz potential, 361
Heterojunction, 447, 447
Hevea brasiliensis, 546, 546
HfO2, 502
Hidden unemployment, 875
High-energy-growth precursor scenario, 654
High heat flow regions, 293–294
High-pressure hydrogenation, 551
High-quality energy stores, 600
High-temperature batteries, 628–629
High-temperature closed-loop C-H-O systems, 598–599, 599t
High-temperature heat storage, 588–591
High-temperature plasma-arc gasification, 620–621
High-voltage DC lines, 573
Historical energy use, 680–681
History of man’s energy usage, 19–29
Hole description of electron vacancies, 368–369, 438–439
Holes, 438–439
Hopping, of electrons, 458
Horizontal axis wind turbines, 689–694, 696
Horizontal wind profile, 247–250
Hot storage, 502, 502–503
Hot water production, See Heating systems, hot water
Hot water systems, 729, 729
storage components, 577, 579, 579–580
Hour angle, 60–61, 206, 219–221
Hourly simulation, 767
Housing, 25
average heat losses by, 727–729
heat loads of, 726–731, 728f
reference data for simulating, 730t
Human energy, See Man’s energy requirement
Human relations, 774–775
energy use and, 671–672
Human society
energy conversion uses, 149, 149
organic matter energy flow to, 149
stored energy build-up in, 152
Human work energy, 21
Humidity, 176–177, 240–241, 503
Huntorf compressed air storage facility, 616–617, 618, 619f
Hybridization of atomic orbitals, 436
Hybrid vehicles, 512, 512
Hydrocarbons
direct photosynthetic production of, 546
hydrogen production from, 620, 620–621
Hydroelectric generators, 382
Hydrogen
in China 2050 model, 825–826, 825f
as energy store, 771
methanol reformer production of, 514, 515f
in northern Europe 2050 scenario, 780–782, 781f
in nuclear reactions in Sun, 42, 42–43, 43, 54–55
pipeline transmission of, 575, 575
power regeneration from, 624
production costs, 17–18
production of, 421, 620–622
safety-related properties, 623t
storage difficulties, 514
storage forms, 622–624
compressed gas, 623
graphite nanofibers, 624
LCA for, 951t, 952–953, 953t
liquid, 623–624
metal hydrides, 599, 624
methanol, 624
status of technology, 974
underground cavity storage of, 620, 771, 825–826, 951t, 952
vehicle safety issues, 516
Hydrogenation
direct, 529
high-pressure, 551
Hydrogen fraction in Sun, 48
Hydrogen fuel use, 516
Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell, 507f, 512
Hydrogen-producing cultures, 539–541
Hydrogen production, 620–622, 631
Hydrogen storage, 514, 620, 622–624, 974
Hydrogen sulfide, 949
Hydrological cycle, 109, 149
human interference with, 167–168, 168f
irrigation impact on, 169
Hydrolysis, 547, 547, 549, 553
Hydropower, 3, 16f, 149, 149, 271–274, 272, 273f, 273f, 421–424, 971
East Asia potentials, 812, 814f
environmental impact, 272–274, 272–274
geographical distribution, 272
high-voltage DC transmission and, 573
in North America 2060 scenario, 797–799, 801f
in northern Europe 2050 scenario, 776, 779f, 780–782
North America average potentials, 798f
present usage, 29
production costs, 16
pumped storage, 600–635
start-up time, 600–602
status of technology, 971
turbine types and efficiency, See Turbines
Hydropower production, 573
Hydrosphere, 146
Hydrostatic approximation, 101
Hydrostatic equilibrium, 47–48, 49
Hy-gas process, 541

I

Ice age disappearance, 975–976
Ice ages, 160–161, 976f
See also Glaciation
Ice cover, 31–32, 159
Ideal gas law, 374–375, 509
Impact assessments, 898, 907–908, 908
monetized, 911–912
monetizing issues, 900–903
multivariate, 910–911, 910f
social context and, 899–900
Impact profile, 910–911, 911, 911f
Implementation studies, 718–723
simulation consistency and, 722–723
system choice and optimization, 721
Import value of energy technologies, 874–875
Impurities in solids, 438
Incineration, 523, 523–524
Inclined surfaces, 235–239, 236f, 237f, 238f, 238f
long-wavelength radiation and, 239–243, 241–243, 241f, 242f
radiation on, 226, 229, 235
Including externalities, 884
Index loan, 867
Indian Ocean, average annual temperature and salinity in, 121f
Indirect economics, 869–871, 877
Indirect heat gains, 729–730, 735
Individual house
heat load of, 726–731
solar heating system for, 473f, 474f
Induced current, 424–425
Industrialization, 28–29
Industrial revolution, 26
Inflation, 859–860
Infrastructure and physical planning, 872
Input streams, 886f
In situ coal gasification, 540
Installation licensing, 897–898
Instalment, See Annuity
Insulation materials, heat, 377
Insulators, 438
Insurance industry, 894
Integrated agriculture, 713
Integration mesh, in climate models, 31
Intensive variables, 360, 361
Intercontinental electrical transmission, 574
Intercontinental fuel transport, 574
Intercropping, 546
Interest rate, 859, 859–860, 860, 860–862
Interference factors, 404–405
Intergenerational interest, 860–862
Intermediary energy conversion, 653–654
Intermediary system efficiency, 657–658
Intermediate load (power plants), 755
Intermediate-load units, 753, 755, 756
Internal combustion engines, 512, 512
Internal consistency, 718–721
Internal energy, 108
Internal stress force, 605–606, 606f, 607
International trade, 874, 879–880
Intransitive, equations of climate, 135
Intransitive equations, 135
Inventory, 890–891, 913
Inverters, 460
Ion-carrying polymers, 464
Ionosphere, 80
IPCC assessments, 197–205
See also A1B scenario
A1B scenario, estimates based thereupon, 915–916, 916, 916–918, 918, 918, 919–920, 920, 920, 921–922
B2 scenario, 965–966
climate models reviewed by, 964
historical data used by, 965
malaria in, 930
vector-borne diseases in, 930
Irreversible thermodynamics, 360–362
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 791–794
Isothermal expansion, 362

J

Japan
average annual solar radiation, 813f
average annual wind power potential, 814f
biofuels potentials, 812
energy needs in 2050 scenario, 811–818, 815–817, 816f
energy production in 2050 scenario, 818f, 819f, 820f, 821f
offshore wind potential, 816f
solar energy in 2050 scenario, 812
Java Climate Model, 965
Jet engines, 367
Joint ocean and atmosphere general circulation models, 125–129
precipitation in, 129f
salinity in, 125f, 127
solar radiation in, 131f
surface temperatures in, 134f
wind in, 133f

K

Kaplan turbine, 422, 423–424, 602–603
Kinetic energy
in atmosphere, 19, 100, 108
creation and destruction of, 108–109, 113, 115f
in Sun, 50
in wind, 255–256, 256f, 257f
Kirchhoff’s law, 50–51
Koppers–Totzek gasifier, 540–541
Krakatoa eruption, 85
Krebs cycle, 312
Kronecker delta, 185
Kuro Shio, 380
Kutta–Joukowski theorem, 386

L

Laisser-faire precursor scenarios, 657
Laminar boundary layer, 99–100, 177, 179
Land-use change, 31
Large system, 360
Laser power transmission, 574–575
Late capitalist economies, 857–858
Latent energy
emissions of, 149–151
irrigation movement of, 169
storage of, 591–600
Latent heat, 96f, 591–600
in atmosphere, 93, 94, 98
Latent heat of evaporation, 371
Latex, 546
Latitude, 69
Latitudinal energy transport
atmospheric, 98, 98
oceanic, 97–98, 98
Lattice structures, 301, 434–435, 437–438, 438
Laurasia, 157–159
Lead–acid batteries, 625, 625, 627–628
Leakage factor, 382
Leak current, 572
Least cost planning, 884
Lens concentrators, 489
Liberalism, 33
Liberalization in energy industry, 882
LiBr, 503
Life-cycle analysis (LCA), 550–551, 883–953, 942
analysis types in, 885
application of, 913–953
of biogas plants, 947–952
chain analysis, 885–886, 885f
chain calculations, 903–907
of coal-fired power plant, 935–938
communicating with decision-makers, 909–912
demand modeling in, 907
difficulties in presenting results, 912
energy, 890–891
of energy systems with storage and transmission, 952–953, 953t
for ethanol, 550–551
full system, 907
of greenhouse gas emissions, 913–918
agriculture, siliviculture, and ecosystems impacts, 929–930
direct health impacts of temperature changes, 918–929
extreme events, 930–931, 932f, 934f
fuel combustion externality estimation, 934–935
valuation of impacts, 931–935, 935t, 937f
vector-borne diseases, 930
warming impacts, 913, 916–918
for hydrogen storage, 951t
input and output streams, 886f
marginal versus systemic change, 909
matrix calculation for, 907–909
methodology, 884–909
aggregation issues, 896–900
context choice, 895–896
impacts considered in, 890–895, 891t
imports and exports, 888–890, 890f
qualitative or quantitative estimates of impacts, 893–894
treatment of risk-related impacts and accidents, 894–895
monetized impacts, 911
monetizing issues, 900–903
multivariate and monetized presentations of, 906–907, 906f
of nuclear power plant, 938, 940–942
partial system analysis, 887, 887–888
of photovoltaic power, 853–854
of power-production, 935–942
biogas plants, 947–952, 949t, 950t
nuclear, 938–942, 941t
photovoltaic power, 944–947, 944f, 946t, 947t, 948f
renewable energy, 942–952
wind power, 942–944, 943t
product, 890–891
of road traffic, 913
social context, 899–900
system, 907
system-level analysis, 886–887
of total energy systems, 907
of wind power, 942–944
Life-cycle assessment, 852, 883
Lifetime of equipment, 657–658, 903
Lift forces, 386–387, 417
Light, velocity of, 52
Light-absorbing gases, 31
Lighting, heat gain from, 729–730
Lightning, power associated with, 307–308
Lignin, 547, 547, 547, 548
Limestone, 152–153, 154
Limiting factors of productivity, 335–341, 335f, 337f, 338f, 339f
Linear programming, 653
Liquid biofuels, 12, 15f, 715–717
biological conversion into, 545–552
production costs, 17–18
Liquid fuels, pipeline transmission of, 575
Liquid hydrogen, 623–624
Liquid sodium, 589
Lithium hexafluorophosphate, 629
Lithium-ion batteries, 629–631, 629f
Lithium-oxygen batteries, 630, 630f
Lithium–polymer batteries, 630
Lithosphere, 147
Livestock, 22, 29
fodder delivery to, 715, 716f
heat production by, 527, 528f
manure supplies and, 717
production efficiency from, 715
rangeland and efficiency of, 715, 719f
Living standard, 29
Load distribution, 764–765
temperature dependence of, 47
time distribution of, 487–488
Load factor, 171–172
Load–following operation of mixed electricity supply system, 764, 768
Loads, 649
Load structure, 658–682
biologically acceptable surroundings and, 662–668
food and water needs and, 669
health needs and, 671
human relations and, 671–672
security needs and, 669–671
Loan types, 863
Local economies, 872–879
Local energy scenarios, 649–651
Local planning, 872
Local systems, 723–771
solar heat or heat-and-electricity, 723–745
wind electricity systems, 746–765
Local time, 60–61
Long-term power storage, 771
Long-term prices, 854
Long-wavelength radiation, 239–243
inclined surfaces and, 241–243, 241f, 242f
Long-wavelength re-radiation, 65, 66f
Lorentz force, 424–425
Low-energy-demand precursor scenarios, 655–656
Luminance distribution, 90f
Mie scattering, 91–92
Rayleigh scattering, 90
Luminosity, 51, 53–54
Lunar orbital plane, 206
Lurgi fixed-bed gasifier, 540–541

M

Magnetic flux density, 635
Magnetic induction, 635
Magnetic storage, 635
Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) converter, 424–425
Magnetosphere, 80
Main-sequence stars
creation of, 40–41
energy production in, 39–55
Malaria, 930, 931f
Man-power, 21
Manufacturing, energy use, 673
Manure, composting of, 525
Man’s energy requirement, 21
Marginal change, 909
Marginal land, 708–713, 712f
Market economies, 33
Market interest rate, 865–866
Market position of renewable energy, 5
Markets, 852
Mark-up procedure, 854
Mass absorption coefficient, 49–50, 51
Matrix calculations, 907–909
Matter cycles, 152
Maximum-efficiency precursor scenarios, 658
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution law, 45, 50
Mean free path, 49–50, 50, 92
Measures of value, 852
Mechanical energy conversion processes, 381–434
cross-wind and other alternative converter concepts, 410–415
ducted rotors, 415–417
flow-driven converters, 381–389
other concepts for, 418–421
propeller-type converters, 389–409
rotors with tip-vanes, 417–418
Mediterranean energy scenario, 783–797
Mediterranean region
energy needs in 2050 scenario, 783–797
power grid connections, 792f
Medium-temperature heat storage, 588–591
Meridional atmospheric circulation, 102–104, 104–105, 105f, 106–107, 111, 112f
Meridional circulation, 102–104
Mesozoic era, 157–159, 161
Metabolic heat, of livestock, 527, 528f, 656
Metal hydrides, 514
heat storage in, 599, 599–600
hydrogen storage in, 599, 624
Metals
heat capacities of, 590t
heat storage in, 589
Meteorological forecasting, 753, 761–762
probability period for, 102
atmospheric concentrations of, 914–915
in biogas, 530, 947–948
hydrogen production from, 620
production, 530f, 534f
safety-related properties, 623t
storage, 534
Methanogenic bacteria, 530
Methanol, 514–515, 544, 715–717
from biomass, 551–552, 551f
hydrogen production from reformed, 514, 515f
hydrogen storage and, 624
use as a fuel, 514, 514–515
storage, 600, 624
Microwave power transmission, 574–575
Microwave scatterometers, 702, 703, 704–705, 705
Mie scattering, 90–91, 90f, 91, 91–92, 92f, 92f, 170–171, 171
Migration, 929
MIHR model, 920
Mixed economy, 873–874, 876, 877
Mixing length, 52
Mixing ratio, 94, 187
Mobility of electrons, 445
Modeling, aims of, 653
Molasses, 545
Molecular orbits, 466–467, 467–468, 467f
Molten carbonate fuel cells, 515, 515
Molten sodium, 496
Momentum equations, for non-uniform wind velocity, 402
Momentum exchange processes, between atmosphere and oceans, 183–184
Monetary economy, 851–852
Monetary systems, 860
Monetary values, 852
Monetized impacts, 911–912
for building-integrated PV, 947t
for greenhouse warming, 931–935, 935t, 937f
Monetizing externalities, 902–903
Monetizing issues, 900–903
Monin–Obukhov length, 247–248
Monin-Obukhov relations, 703, 706
Monocrystalline silicon cells, 453–454, 453f
Mortality factor, 920, 920, 922f, 926f, 928
Mosquitoes, 930
Multicrystalline solar cells, 453, 454–456, 456f
Multilayer solar cells, See Stacked solar cells
Multiplier effect
of job creation, 875
of public spending, 857–858
Multivariate impact assessment approach, 910–911, 910f
Multivariate impact profile approach, 911
Municipal biomass waste, 12
Muscle work, 21

N

N2, See Nitrogen
N3 dye, 464, 464
NACA airfoils, 388f, 394–395
Nagler turbine, 422, 423–424, 602–603
Nanofiber storage, 514, 624
Nanoparticles, 462–463
National debt accounts, 877
National economy, 872–879, 873–879
National energy systems, renewable energy penetration in, 5
Natural circulation, 472
Natural gas, production peaking of, 30
Natural gas pipeline networks, 575
NCEP-NCAR wind speed database, 688
Neanderthal energy use, 22, 23t
Near-intransitive equations, 137–138
Neoclassical economic theory, 857
Neoclassical theory, 857, 857–858
Neolithic age, 22, 25
Neolithic energy use, 25
NESO model, 806–807
Net energy, 870, 871f
demand, 743–745
produced by energy converters, 868, 870
time profile, 871
Net present value, 862–864
Net primary production (NPP), 790, 792f
Net radiation, 64f, 71–73, 73
Neutrinos, 42, 43, 49–50
NH3, See Ammonia
Nickel–cadmium batteries, 625
Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), 311
cycle, 154–157, 155f
fixation, 154
influence on biomass production, 551–552
Nitrifying bacteria, 156
Nitrogen, 154
in biogas production, 531
fixation of, 154–155, 156
Nitrogen cycle, 154–157, 155f
Nitrogen oxides, 88, 524
Nitrous oxide, 913–914, 914–915
Non-interacting streamtubes, 389–394
Non-laminar wind fields, 404–405
Non-radiative energy flows, 176–211
Non-renewable energy resources, 20, 877
indirect economics and, 869
interest rates and, 861
Non-uniform wind velocity, 400–403, 401f, 404f
Nordic Power Pool, 761–762, 762, 763f, 763f
Normal conducting lines, 572–573
Normal incidence radiation, See Normal radiation
Normal mode wave solutions, 638
Normal radiation, 219–221
North America
average solar radiation, 797f
average wind-power potentials, 798f
biomass average potentials, 799f
energy needs in 2050 scenario, 797–811, 803f, 804f, 804f, 805f, 805f
energy scenario, 656
hydropower average potentials, 798f
power import/export simulation, 806–807, 807–808, 808f, 808f, 809–810, 809f, 809f, 810, 810–811, 810f, 811f
Northern Europe
energy needs in 2050 scenario, 776–782
energy scenario, 776–778
past energy use in, 24–25, 24f
North Sea, offshore wind in, 427–428, 428
Norwegian Sea, 121–123
NSES software, 733, 734, 734f, 744f
n-type material, 439–440, 440, 440, 447, 945
Nuclear accidents, 938–940, 940t
Nuclear breeder reactors, 589
Nuclear energy, 19, 149, 303–306, 304f
fuel resources, 30
LCA for fuel chain, 938–942, 941t
start-up time, 753
Nuclear fusion
as energy source, 149
in stars, 39–40, 40–41
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), spectra, 465–466
Nuclear potential, 44f
Nuclear processes in Sun, 49–50, 53–54, 346
Nuclear reactions
rate of, 45, 45, 46, 46f
in Sun, 42–47, 43–44
Nuclear resonance, 43–44, 44f
Nuclear test ban, 85, 85f
Nuclear weapons, 32–33
atmospheric 14C and testing, 154
Nutrients, requirement for biomass production, 169

O

18O, 159
O3, See Ozone
Obliquity, 162, 162
Ocean biomass production, 339
Ocean currents, See Currents, in oceans
Ocean farming, 421
Ocean power sources, 17f
Oceans, 114–129
circulation of, 125–129
human impact on, 169
modeling, 194–195, 195–197
wind and, 147, 210–211
wind-driven, 210–211
energy absorbed by, 146–147
evaporation from, 180
gravity waves in, 207–208
heat transport by, 97–98
momentum exchange processes with atmosphere and, 183–184
salinity distributions, 121–123
scales of motion, 123–125
state variables of, 119–123
temperature adjustments in, 123
temperature gradients in, 120–121, 380
tide and wave modeling, 205–211
Ocean salinity gradient conversion, 517–519
Ocean-thermal conversion, 380–381
Ocean thermal gradients, 288–291, 300–303
electricity generation from, 421–422
environmental impact of utilization, 877
geographical distribution, 244
power derived from, 286
Ocean thermal gradients power, 288–291, 289f, 290f, 291f
Ocean waves, 274–279
See also Wave motion
power of, 279–282, 280f, 281f, 281f, 282f
spectra, 275–279, 276f
wave spectra, 276f, 277f, 277f, 278f, 279f
Odeillo plant, 496
Offshore power transmission, 572–573
Offshore wind, 427–428, 428, 688, 689, 694f, 698, 698–702, 699f, 701t
advantages of, 708
estimating production, 702–708
Japan, Korean and Chinese coast potentials, 816f
power transmission issues, 573–575
Offshore wind power production, 702–708
Offshore wind turbine foundation, 409
Ohmic losses, 574
Ohm’s law, 362
Oil, 25
pipeline transmission of, 575
production peaking of, 30
seed, 546
Oil spills, 169
Oil supply crisis of 1973/1974, 878–879
Onsager relations, 362
Open cycles, 367
Operating collectors, 481–484, 492
Optical systems, 491
Orbital parameters of Earth, influence on climate, 161–162
Organic agriculture, 713
Organic-compound emissions, 524–525
Organic dyes, 470
Organic fuels, 520
Organic matter, energy flow to human society of, 149
Organic solar cells, 461
Oscillating-vane wave energy converter, 431f, 433f
Osmotic pump, 302
Otto cycle, 366f, 367, 544, 549
Output streams, 886f
Overgrazing, 166
Overhead transmission lines, 572, 572–573
Overshot waterwheels, 382
Oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere, 41f
Ozone (O3), 80, 88, 963
anthropogenic emissions, 88
in atmosphere, 161
distributions of, 88f
plant growth impacts, 929–930
solar radiation absorption by, 87, 87–88, 87f

P

Pacific Ocean, average annual temperature and salinity in, 122f
Paleozoic period, 157–159, 161
Palm oil, 546
Panemone, See Cross-wind converters
Parabolic reflectors, 489, 489, 489f
Partial system analysis, 887, 887–888
Partial tuning, 432
Particles
in buildings, 654
influence on solar radiation, 84–85
sea salt spray, 180, 197
Particulate emissions, 157
impact of anthropogenic, 964
Particulate matter
altitude and density of, 82, 83f
in atmosphere, 80–85
emissions of, 31, 524
estimates of, 82
hydrological cycle impacts of, 169
radioactive, 85, 85f
residence times in atmosphere, 84–85
size distribution in atmosphere of, 83f
solar radiation transmittance and, 84–85, 84f
ventilation requirements and, 729
Passivation, 453–454
Passive solar heating, 3, 472, 472, 472–473, 473f, 474f
Passive wind energy, 3
Pastures, 147, 166
Pathogens, 532
Pathway method, 903–904, 904, 904f
Pauli principle, 438
Peak load, 764
Peak-load units, 756, 757, 757–759, 758f, 759, 761
wind power as, 764
Peak shaving, 768–770, 980
Peat, 520f
Pelletizing, 523
Pelton turbine, 604
Pelton turbines, 382, 422, 422–423, 604, 604
Penetration of renewable energy, 3
Per-capita emission limits, 966–967
Performance modeling, 653
PERL cells, 453f, 454f
Permeability, electric in vacuum, 635
Permeability, soil, 298–300
Perovskite solar cells, 470–472, 471f, 471f
Phase changes, 591
solid–solid, 591, 591t
Pheophytin, 316–319
Phosphine, 945
Phosphoric acid cells, 512
Photochemical smog, 172
Photodissociation, 153f
Photoelectrochemical cells, 461–472
Photo-electrochemical conversion (PEC), 461–472, 462f
sensitizers for, 464, 465–466, 465f, 465f
Photo-electrochemical dye, 470
Photolysis, 330
Photosphere, 57, 57–58
Photosynthesis, 147, 152–153, 153, 309–333, 312–330
bacterial, 332–333
efficiency of, 330–332
green plant, 309–312
mechanisms of green plant, 309–312, 310f, 311f
Photosystems I, II, 313–314
Photo-thermoelectric converters, 494f
design of, 493–496, 493f
efficiency of, 495, 496f
Photovoltaic conversion, 434–461
converter design, 449–453
efficiency, 724
electrical efficiencies of, 460, 461, 684
inverters for, 460
LCA for, 944–947, 944f, 946t, 947t, 948f
module construction, 460
photovoltaic devices, 439–440
p–n junction, 439–440, 441f
residual energy use, 460–461
solar cells, 443–449
status of technology, 973
temperature dependence, 452–453, 453, 461
Photovoltaic devices, 439–440
Photovoltaic panels
building-integrated, 683–684, 686f
site availability for, 684–685
Photovoltaic solar power
production cost, 15–16
subsidies and buy-back rates, 15–16
in supply scenario, 683–685
Photovoltaic–thermal systems (PVT systems), 724, 724, 726
simulation results for, 733–734, 733t
large system, 738–743, 741f, 741f, 742f, 743f, 744f, 744f
medium system, 735–738, 738f, 739f, 740f, 740f
small system, 734–735, 736f, 737f, 737f
system with heat pump, 743–745, 745f, 746f, 747f, 747f, 748f
Physical planning, 872
Phytoplankton, 147
Pipeline networks, 575, 575
Pipeline transport, 947–948
Pipe sections, heat loss from, 570
Pitch angle, 393, 398–399
Planck spectrum, 472
Planck’s constant, 50, 314–316, 440–441, 448
Planck’s law of radiation, 50
Planning assessments, 898
Planning methodology, 649–653
Plants (green) photosynthesis, 309–312
Plasma, in thermionic generators, 371
Plasma-arc gasification, 620–621
Plasmodium falciparium parasite, 930
Plastic solar cells, 464
Plastocyanine, 325–327
Plastoquinone, 316–319, 321f, 322
Platinum, 462, 463–464, 512
in fuel cell catalysts, 513
Plywood flywheel disks, 610
Pneumatic wave energy converter, 428–431, 429f, 431f
p–n junction, 439–440, 440–443, 441f, 443–444
Polar ice, 147
Polar ice melting energy, 147, 172–173
Polarization, of solar radiation, 90, 91f, 92f
Polarization of sunlight, 90
Poleward energy transfer, 65, 144f
Poleward energy transport, 65, 65f
Political election campaigns, 975–976
Political impacts, 893
Pollution
chain calculations and, 905–906, 906
dispersal of, 906, 906–907
government-enforced limits on, 857
interest rates and, 861
socioeconomic costs of, 856, 856–857
Polycrystalline solar cells, See Multicrystalline solar cells
Polyperfluorosulfonic acid, 513
Pool bidding, 762, 881
Population, world, 5, 714
Population distribution, 28–29
density in 1994, 665f
density in 2050 scenario, 665f
Population projections, 668f, 773–774, 921–922
Population stabilization, 969
Post-numerando interest, 863
Potential energy, 48–49, 148
Potentials
electron, 434–435, 437
Gibbs, 361
Helmholtz, 361
Potential temperature, 187
Power availability, 766f
Power coefficient, of wind energy converter, 754–755
Power coefficients, 751f
Power curves
for wave power, 978f, 979f
for wind turbines, 695–696, 697f, 750f, 752f, 761, 765f
Power duration curve, 245f
of power in the wind, 258–259, 263
of power in waves, 279–282
of solar radiation, 244–246
of wave energy converter, 978f
of wind energy converter, 262–263
of wind energy system, 746–748, 750–752
Power grid, 881, 882
in Mediterranean, 792f
Power plants
See also specific types
biogas, 947–952, 949t, 950t
operation, 940–942, 941t, 942
start-up times of, 753
Power pools, 761–762, 762, 881
Power-production chains, LCA of, 935–942
biogas plants, 947–952, 949t, 950t
coal-fired stations, 935–938, 939t
nuclear, 938–942, 941t
nuclear power, 938–942, 941t
photovoltaic power, 944–947, 944f, 946t, 947t, 948f
renewable energy, 942–952
wind power, 942–944, 943t
Power regeneration, from hydrogen, 624
Power towers, 496
Power transmission, 572–573
intercontinental, 574
normal conducting lines, 572–573
offshore issues, 573–575
radiant, 574–575
superconducting lines for, 574–575
pp-chains, 47, 47f
pp-reactions, 43, 45
Prandtl layer, 184, 185–186
Prandtl model, 394–395
Precipitation, 128
climate change effects on, 203f, 204
collection, 271–272
energy exchange through, 115, 116f
observed, 137f
tropical forest removal and, 167, 167f
Precipitation rates
annual
in 1995, 116f
average, 111–113, 114f
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 128, 129f
Precursor scenarios, 653–654, 773
catastrophe, 656
high-energy, 654
laisser-faire, 657
low-energy-demand, 655–656
maximum-efficiency, 658
rational investment, 657–658
runaway, 654
stability, 655
Pre-industrial temperature reference, 964
Present value, 860–864
accumulated, 864–865, 864f, 865, 865
Pressure at ground level, 109–110
Pressure gradient term, 185–186
Price fixation, 876
Price flexibility, 858–859
Price index, 867
Prices
break-even, 864–869
fixed, 854
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