Flow-driven mechanical energy converters,
381–389
Fluctuations
Flux, of radiation,
21–22
energy flux concentration ratio,
491–492
Food and water demands,
669
average human intake of,
21
human requirements for,
21
Food energy production,
12–14
Food energy requirement of man,
21
Food intake
biomass energy impact on,
714
in global energy scenario
Foreign payments balance,
874
Forestry
impact estimation for,
918
fraction of area occupied by,
712f
chain calculation for,
904
energy use influenced by industry,
33
per country emission targets approach,
964
recoverable reserves,
152
Foundations, offshore wind,
702–708
Fresh biomass gasification,
542–545
Friction
kinetic energy loss to,
147
Frictional dissipation
Fuel-based back-up systems
extrapolation model for simulating,
754–757
Fuel-based power units
in back-up system simulation,
755,
756
ion-carrying polymers in,
464
status of technology,
974
Fuel production from biological material,
638
Fuelwood, market prices,
15
Fully tracking collectors,
488
Fusion energy sources,
306
G
Gaseous fuels
pipeline transmission of,
575
Gasoline
ethanol as substitute for,
549
safety-related properties,
623t
General circulation models,
157,
684
joint ocean and atmosphere,
125–129
wind-forecasting models and,
761–762
Geographical information systems (GIS),
922–927
Geographical latitude,
61f
Geo-pressurized systems,
294
heat transport equation,
181
status of technology,
973
Geothermal flows and stored energy,
293–300
Geothermal heat fluxes,
183
food production in
Global temperature
estimated impacts from fuel combustion,
931–935
estimated impacts under A1B scenario,
936t
valuation of impacts,
937f
Gravitational constant
g,
93–94
Gravitational force at Earth’s surface,
205
Greenhouse gas emissions,
539
biogas production and emissions of,
539
per-capita approach to emissions controls,
964,
968–970
Greenhouse warming
externality estimation for fuel combustion and,
934–935
on agriculture, ecosystems, and silviculture,
929–930
fossil-fuel phase-out route for,
963–970
vector-borne diseases and,
930
Greenhouse-warming potential (GWP),
947–948
Gross national product,
852
Group velocity of waves,
279
H
Hartree-Foch self-consistent field calculation,
466–467
Health, energy requirement,
774
Health needs, energy use and,
671,
774
Heat energy conversion processes,
368–381
direct thermoelectric conversion,
368–372
engine conversion of solar energy,
372–375
in flat-plate collectors with heat storage,
484,
484f,
485
fluid circulation rate and efficiency of,
485
distribution of smoothly varying part of,
297f
geothermal flows and stored energy,
293–300
solar-derived heat sources,
287–293
upper soil and air temperature gradients,
291–293,
292f
Heat flux
of anthropogenic origin,
32–33
Heat from interior of Earth,
19,
293
Heating systems
Heat loss
for heat storage systems,
582,
582f
Heat of fusion storage,
592
wind energy powering,
421
flat-plate collectors with,
484–488
materials other than water for,
585–586
medium- and high-temperature,
588–591
Heat transmission
heat loss from pipe sections,
570
Heat usage
temperature distribution of,
679,
679f
Helium fraction in Sun,
48
High-energy-growth precursor scenario,
654
High-pressure hydrogenation,
551
High-quality energy stores,
600
High-temperature batteries,
628–629
High-temperature closed-loop C-H-O systems,
598–599,
599t
High-temperature heat storage,
588–591
High-temperature plasma-arc gasification,
620–621
High-voltage DC lines,
573
History of man’s energy usage,
19–29
Hopping, of electrons,
458
reference data for simulating,
730t
Human society
energy conversion uses,
149,
149
organic matter energy flow to,
149
stored energy build-up in,
152
Hybridization of atomic orbitals,
436
Hydrocarbons
direct photosynthetic production of,
546
Hydroelectric generators,
382
Hydrogen
methanol reformer production of,
514,
515f
pipeline transmission of,
575,
575
power regeneration from,
624
safety-related properties,
623t
storage difficulties,
514
status of technology,
974
vehicle safety issues,
516
Hydrogenation
Hydrogen fraction in Sun,
48
Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell,
507f,
512
Hydrogen-producing cultures,
539–541
irrigation impact on,
169
Hydropower, ,
16f,
149,
149,
271–274,
272,
273f,
273f,
421–424,
971
geographical distribution,
272
high-voltage DC transmission and,
573
North America average potentials,
798f
status of technology,
971
turbine types and efficiency,
See Turbines
Hydropower production,
573
Hydrostatic approximation,
101
I
simulation consistency and,
722–723
system choice and optimization,
721
Import value of energy technologies,
874–875
Impurities in solids,
438
Including externalities,
884
Indian Ocean, average annual temperature and salinity in,
121f
Individual house
Industrial revolution,
26
Infrastructure and physical planning,
872
In situ coal gasification,
540
Insulation materials, heat,
377
Integrated agriculture,
713
Integration mesh, in climate models,
31
Intercontinental electrical transmission,
574
Intercontinental fuel transport,
574
Intergenerational interest,
860–862
Intermediary energy conversion,
653–654
Intermediary system efficiency,
657–658
Intermediate load (power plants),
755
Internal combustion engines,
512,
512
Intransitive, equations of climate,
135
Intransitive equations,
135
Ion-carrying polymers,
464
A1B scenario, estimates based thereupon,
915–916,
916,
916–918,
918,
918,
919–920,
920,
920,
921–922
climate models reviewed by,
964
historical data used by,
965
vector-borne diseases in,
930
Irreversible thermodynamics,
360–362
in Mediterranean 2050 model,
791–794
Isothermal expansion,
362
J
Japan
average annual solar radiation,
813f
average annual wind power potential,
814f
offshore wind potential,
816f
solar energy in 2050 scenario,
812
Joint ocean and atmosphere general circulation models,
125–129
surface temperatures in,
134f
K
Kinetic energy
Kutta–Joukowski theorem,
386
L
Laisser-faire precursor scenarios,
657
Latent energy
irrigation movement of,
169
Latent heat of evaporation,
371
Latitudinal energy transport
Liberalization in energy industry,
882
communicating with decision-makers,
909–912
difficulties in presenting results,
912
of energy systems with storage and transmission,
952–953,
953t
of greenhouse gas emissions,
913–918
agriculture, siliviculture, and ecosystems impacts,
929–930
direct health impacts of temperature changes,
918–929
fuel combustion externality estimation,
934–935
vector-borne diseases,
930
for hydrogen storage,
951t
input and output streams,
886f
marginal versus systemic change,
909
qualitative or quantitative estimates of impacts,
893–894
treatment of risk-related impacts and accidents,
894–895
multivariate and monetized presentations of,
906–907,
906f
of total energy systems,
907
Life-cycle assessment,
852,
883
Light-absorbing gases,
31
Lightning, power associated with,
307–308
biological conversion into,
545–552
Liquid fuels, pipeline transmission of,
575
Lithium hexafluorophosphate,
629
Lithium-oxygen batteries,
630,
630f
Lithium–polymer batteries,
630
production efficiency from,
715
rangeland and efficiency of,
715,
719f
temperature dependence of,
47
Load–following operation of mixed electricity supply system,
764,
768
biologically acceptable surroundings and,
662–668
food and water needs and,
669
solar heat or heat-and-electricity,
723–745
Long-term power storage,
771
Long-wavelength re-radiation,
65,
66f
Low-energy-demand precursor scenarios,
655–656
Luminance distribution,
90f
M
Magnetic flux density,
635
Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) converter,
424–425
Main-sequence stars
energy production in,
39–55
Manufacturing, energy use,
673
Manure, composting of,
525
Man’s energy requirement,
21
Market position of renewable energy,
Mass absorption coefficient,
49–50,
51
Maximum-efficiency precursor scenarios,
658
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution law,
45,
50
Mechanical energy conversion processes,
381–434
cross-wind and other alternative converter concepts,
410–415
Mediterranean energy scenario,
783–797
Mediterranean region
energy needs in 2050 scenario,
783–797
power grid connections,
792f
Medium-temperature heat storage,
588–591
Metals
probability period for,
102
atmospheric concentrations of,
914–915
hydrogen production from,
620
safety-related properties,
623t
Methanogenic bacteria,
530
hydrogen production from reformed,
514,
515f
hydrogen storage and,
624
Microwave power transmission,
574–575
Mobility of electrons,
445
Molten carbonate fuel cells,
515,
515
Momentum equations, for non-uniform wind velocity,
402
Momentum exchange processes, between atmosphere and oceans,
183–184
for building-integrated PV,
947t
Monin-Obukhov relations,
703,
706
Multiplier effect
Multivariate impact profile approach,
911
Municipal biomass waste,
12
N
National debt accounts,
877
National energy systems, renewable energy penetration in,
Natural gas, production peaking of,
30
Natural gas pipeline networks,
575
NCEP-NCAR wind speed database,
688
Neanderthal energy use,
22,
23t
Near-intransitive equations,
137–138
Neoclassical economic theory,
857
produced by energy converters,
868,
870
Net primary production (NPP),
790,
792f
Nickel–cadmium batteries,
625
Nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP),
311
influence on biomass production,
551–552
in biogas production,
531
Non-interacting streamtubes,
389–394
Non-radiative energy flows,
176–211
Non-renewable energy resources,
20,
877
indirect economics and,
869
Normal mode wave solutions,
638
North America
average solar radiation,
797f
average wind-power potentials,
798f
biomass average potentials,
799f
hydropower average potentials,
798f
power import/export simulation,
806–807,
807–808,
808f,
808f,
809–810,
809f,
809f,
810,
810–811,
810f,
811f
Northern Europe
energy needs in 2050 scenario,
776–782
Nuclear breeder reactors,
589
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), spectra,
465–466
Nuclear reactions
Nuclear test ban,
85,
85f
atmospheric
14C and testing,
154
Nutrients, requirement for biomass production,
169
O
Ocean biomass production,
339
momentum exchange processes with atmosphere and,
183–184
temperature adjustments in,
123
Ocean salinity gradient conversion,
517–519
electricity generation from,
421–422
environmental impact of utilization,
877
geographical distribution,
244
Offshore power transmission,
572–573
Japan, Korean and Chinese coast potentials,
816f
Offshore wind power production,
702–708
Offshore wind turbine foundation,
409
pipeline transmission of,
575
production peaking of,
30
Oil supply crisis of 1973/1974,
878–879
Orbital parameters of Earth, influence on climate,
161–162
Organic-compound emissions,
524–525
Organic matter, energy flow to human society of,
149
Oscillating-vane wave energy converter,
431f,
433f
Overshot waterwheels,
382
Oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere,
41f
anthropogenic emissions,
88
P
Pacific Ocean, average annual temperature and salinity in,
122f
Particles
influence on solar radiation,
84–85
Particulate emissions,
157
impact of anthropogenic,
964
Particulate matter
altitude and density of,
82,
83f
hydrological cycle impacts of,
169
residence times in atmosphere,
84–85
size distribution in atmosphere of,
83f
solar radiation transmittance and,
84–85,
84f
ventilation requirements and,
729
Passive wind energy,
Penetration of renewable energy,
Per-capita emission limits,
966–967
Performance modeling,
653
Permeability, electric in vacuum,
635
Phosphoric acid cells,
512
Photoelectrochemical cells,
461–472
Photo-electrochemical dye,
470
process details,
313f,
315f,
316f,
317f,
318f,
319f,
320f,
321f,
322f,
323f,
324f,
325f,
326f,
326f,
327f,
328f,
329f,
330f,
346–347
Photo-thermoelectric converters,
494f
status of technology,
973
Photovoltaic panels
Photovoltaic solar power
subsidies and buy-back rates,
15–16
Photovoltaic–thermal systems (PVT systems),
724,
724,
726
Pipe sections, heat loss from,
570
Planck’s law of radiation,
50
Planning assessments,
898
Plants (green) photosynthesis,
309–312
Plasma, in thermionic generators,
371
Plasmodium falciparium parasite,
930
in fuel cell catalysts,
513
Plywood flywheel disks,
610
Polarization, of solar radiation,
90,
91f,
92f
Polarization of sunlight,
90
Poleward energy transfer,
65,
144f
Poleward energy transport,
65,
65f
Political election campaigns,
975–976
Pollution
government-enforced limits on,
857
Polyperfluorosulfonic acid,
513
Population distribution,
28–29
density in 2050 scenario,
665f
Population stabilization,
969
Post-numerando interest,
863
Potentials
Potential temperature,
187
Power coefficient, of wind energy converter,
754–755
Power curves
Power duration curve,
245f
of wave energy converter,
978f
Power plants
See also specific types
Power-production chains, LCA of,
935–942
Power regeneration, from hydrogen,
624
climate change effects on,
203f,
204
tropical forest removal and,
167,
167f
Precipitation rates
annual
in joint ocean–atmosphere models,
128,
129f
Pre-industrial temperature reference,
964
Prices