long-term, 854
market
biomass waste, 15
fuelwood, 15
sales
diesel fuel, 17–18
gasoline, 17–18
shadow, 855
short-term, 854
actual pricing, 858–859
fixprice system, 854
flexprice system, 854
Pricing policies, 858–859
Primary production of biological material, 545
Private interest rate, 860–862
Privatization of the energy industry, 880–883
Probability, 895
Production function, 854–855
Production planning, 854–857
Productivity, See Biological energy conversion and storage
Product LCAs, 890–891
Profit, See Surplus value
Profit allocation, 855
government influencing, 876–877
Program verification, 734–735
Propane, safety-related properties, 623t
Propeller-type converters, 389–409
blade profiles, 405f
floating offshore wind turbines, 409
model behavior of power output and matching to load, 394–400
non-interacting streamtubes, 389–394
size limits, 408–409
wind profile in wake and arrays of, 403–408
direct methanol, 514–515
Proton mass Mp, 48
PSO, See Public service obligation
Public service obligation (PSO), 881
Public subsidies, for photovoltaic solar power, 15–16
Pumped hydro storage, 600–635
Pumping devices
solar, 372
Purchasing power parity (PPP), 932
PVT panels, 460–461
PVT systems, See Photovoltaic–thermal systems
Q
Quantum efficiency, of solar cell, 445–446
Quantum tunneling, 44f
Quasi-steady-state approximation, 682
R
Racell prototype, 734–735
Radar measurements, 702
Radial stress, 609
Radiant electrical energy transmission, 574–575
absorption
by Earth–atmosphere system, 62
spectral distributions of, 60
direct, 67
estimates for scenario construction, 683
disposition in Earth-atmosphere system, 59–79
electromagnetic, in Sun, 50
equilibrium, Earth–atmosphere system, 62
normal, 219–221
source term, 109
total at top of atmosphere, 66f
ultraviolet, 80
Radiation constant a, 52
Radiation equilibrium, 62
Radiation pressure, 52
Radiative cooling, 502
Radiative forcing, 917f
Radiative transfer, 50
Radioactive decay, in Earth’s crust, 295
Radioactivity, See Nuclear energy
Radiolarians, 162
Rain making, 169
Rainout, 84–85
Rain prevention, 169
RAINS model, 908
Rajasthan desert, 204
Rajputana desert, 166
biomass production on, 718
in ocean thermal energy conversion, 380
in photo-thermoelectric converter design, 493–494
thermodynamic cooling with, 504
Rational distribution, 855
Rational investment precursor scenarios, 657–658
Reaction rate, for nuclear process, 53–54
Recombination lifetime, 446
Recombination processes, 329–330
Recycling of materials, 904–905
Redistribution subsidies, 876
Reference data, 235–236
Reflectance, 228–229
hemispherical, 229
Reflection
diffuse, 228
Reflectors
Fresnel, 489f
Reformed gas, 598
Refrigeration cycle, 367–368
Regenerative battery, 505–507
Regional energy scenarios, 773–776
Regional systems, 771–827
scenario construction for, 773–776
China, 818–827
efficiency scenarios, 773–776
Japan and South Korea, 811–818
Mediterranean, 783–797
North America, 797–811
northern Europe, 776–782
Relations, energy requirement, 660–661
Renewability, 344
Renewable energy
average use, year 2000, 6t
average use, year 2013, 9t
costs, 867
defined, 19
global politics and, 974–977
LCA for, 942–952
market characteristics of forms of, 12–14
outlook, 963
past and present resources, 19–29
present production, by country, 5
R&D needs, 878
status of technologies, 971–973
subsidies supporting, 877
theoretical maximum rates of flows from, 34
Renewable energy resources, 20
Renewable energy scenarios, 653–682
centralized scenario, 833
China, 818–827
Japan and South Korea, 811–818
Mediterranean region, 783–797
North America, 797–811
Northern Europe, 776–782
worldwide, 828–842
Renewable energy sources
See also specific sources
See also specific sources
biological conversion and storage, 308–343
bacterial photosynthesis, 332–333
efficiency of conversion, 330–332
liquid biofuels, 545–552
photosynthesis, 309–333, 309–312, 310f, 311f, 312–330, 313f, 315f, 316f, 317f, 318f, 319f, 320f, 321f, 322f, 323f, 324f, 325f, 326f, 326f, 327f, 328f, 329f, 330f, 346–347
productivity in different environments, 333–343
direct solar energy, 219–246
direct solar radiation
geographical distribution of, 244
long-wavelength radiation, 239–243
power distribution curves, 244–246
short-wavelength radiation, 227–239, 228–230, 230–234, 230f, 231f, 232f, 233f, 233f, 234f, 235–239, 235f, 236f, 237f, 238f, 238f
heat flows
geothermal heat origins, 294–297
regions of high, 293–294
solar-derived heat sources, 287–293
heat flows, reservoirs, and other sources, 286–308
geothermal flows and stored energy, 293–300
hydropower environmental impact, 272–274
ocean thermal and salinity gradients, 300–303
ocean waves, 274–279
in climatic context, 282
wave spectra power, 275–279
river flows, hydropower, and elevated water storage, 271–274
water flows and reservoirs, waves, and tides, 265–286
wind, 246–264
height scaling and distribution, 254–255
horizontal profile, 247–250
velocities, 247–255
Research and development, of energy systems, 873
Research and development subsidies, 878
for heat pumps, 376
for pumped storage facilities, 602
river flows, hydropower, and elevated water storage, 271–274
water flows and, 265–286
Resilience, 893
Resistance, electric, 375
Resources for the future, 29–30
Respiration, 333
Respiration losses, 21–22
Reverse bias, 443
Reverse-mode fuel cells, 421
Reversible chemical reactions, 597–598
Reynold stress, 195
Richardson number, 248
Risk, 894
accident, 894
Risk-related impacts, 894–895
River flow, 271–274
Rock cavities, 613
Rock storage, 613f
Rubber tree, 546
Runaway precursor scenario, 654
Ruthenium
in fuel cell catalysts, 513
S
Saccharification enzymes, 554
Safety
fuel properties, 623t
hydrogen vehicle issues, 516
Safety factor, in flywheel design, 609–610
Sails, 385
Sail-ships, energy conversion by, 25–26
Salinity, 121–123
in Atlantic Ocean, 120f
glaciation and, 161
gradients, 300–303
in Indian Ocean, 121f
ocean gradients of, 149
electrical conversion, 517–519
in Pacific Ocean, 122f
Salinity differences
electricity generation from, 302–303
energy associated with, 302–303
Salt dome storage of gas, 620
Salt storage of heat, 615
Sargasso Sea, 211
Satellite solar power, 574–575
Satellite wind estimates, 250–251
Savonius rotor, 410
Savonius rotor, See Cross-wind converters
Scales of motion
in atmosphere, 108
in atmosphere, 85–86
estimates for scenario construction, 683
models for description of, 89–92
Scavenging, 84
Scenarios
demand, construction of, 653–682
for future energy supply, 682–683
implementation issues, 718–723
catastrophe, 656
high-energy-growth, 654
laisser-faire, 657
low-energy-demand, 655–656
maximum-efficiency, 658
rational investment, 657–658
runaway, 654
stability, 655
for regional systems, 773–776
supply, 682–718
system choice and optimization, 721
time variable in, 651–653
use of concept, 649–651
Schottky junction, 449
Schrödinger equation, 437
Sea-level pressure P0, 187
Security impacts, 893
amorphous, 457–459
band gap, 450
Semiconductor theory, 439
Semi-deserts
albedo of, 166
steppe transformation to, 166
Sensible energy emissions, 149–151
exchange in flat-plate collectors, 479
height and latitude distribution of, 190f
Sensible heat storage, See Heat capacity storage
Sewage plants, biogas production by, 537–538
Shadow price, 855
Shearing stress exerted by wind, 407
Shelter, 662
Short-circuit current of solar cell, 445
Short-term prices, 854
average behavior of, 230–234
definition, 67
Silicon dioxide, 945
Silviculture, greenhouse gas emission impacts on, 929–930
Simulation consistency, 722–723
Simulation models, 680
SiO2, 502
Slagging Lurgi process, 541
Snow, See Precipitation
Social context, 899–900
Social framework for energy systems, 851–871
Social impacts, 892–893
Social interest rate, 860–862
Social issues, 32–34
employment impact in, 875
resource allocation in, 858
Social values, 851–852
Social welfare, economic activity and, 30
Socioeconomic assessment, framework for, 851–871
Socio-economic assessment of energy systems, 851
break-even calculation, 864–869
direct cost, 859–860
examples of cost comparison, 867
indirect economics, 869–871
present value calculation, 862–864
price assignment, 855
value assignment, 855
Socioeconomic costs, 856
Sodium
liquid, 589
molten, 496
SOFC, See Solid oxide fuel cells
Soil
air fraction of, 589–590
heat capacity of, 180
heat transport in, 181
seasonal variations of temperature of, 182f
water and heat disposition in, 180–183
centralized and decentralized, 981
concentrators, 496–502
heat generation with, 460–461
module construction, 460
modules, 460
optical subsystem, 496–502
other materials for, 459–460
perovskite, 470–472
plastic, 464
thin-film, 459–460
in windowpanes, 460
catenary-shaped, 498–502
with heat storage, 484–488
modeling windows as, 730–731
tracking, 488
Solar cooling, 502–505
Solar coordinates, 61f
Solar-derived heat sources, 287–293
engine conversion of, 372–375
Ericsson hot-air engine, 372–375
historical uses of, 22
housing and, 25
in Japan and South Korea 2050 scenario, 812
in Mediterranean 2050 model, 783–784, 784–785, 784f, 785f, 786f, 786f, 787f, 787f, 788, 794, 795–797
processes near surface of Earth, 79–142
atmosphere, 79–113
oceans and continents, 114–129
Solar energy conversion, 149
concentrating collectors, 459
electricity production, 735
focusing systems, 491–493
heat production, 735
heat pump combination, 375–378
photo-thermoelectric converters, 493–496
photovoltaic converters, 449–453
pumps, 375–378
refrigerators, 573
tracking systems, 449
work delivered by hot-air engine, 617–618
Solar energy cycle, 21
Solar energy flux at Earth, 32
Solar evolution, 54–55
Solar flux, average, Earth–atmosphere system absorption of, 32–33
Solar heating
decentralized, 569–570
flat-plate collectors, 475–481
greenhouses, 474
local resource availability and, 723–745
modeling, 724–726
national average values, 2013, 18f
reference data for home, 730t
system dynamics, 724
usage of, 12
water heaters, 474
Solar mass, 49
Solar power
national average values, 2013, 18f
average behaviour, 230–234
cloud cover, influence of, 231–232
photo-electrochemical, 461–472
photovoltaic conversion, 434–461
solar cooling, 502–505
solar thermal conversion, 472–488
data series, 853
in atmosphere, 71–73
at surface, 67–79
Earth–atmosphere system absorption of, 62
Earth receiving, 58–59
at Earth’s surface, 67–79
in coupled ocean–atmosphere models, 131f
direct and scattered radiation, 67
penetration of, 78–79
East Asia average annual, 813f
frequency spectrum, 68f
absorption processes and, 87–89
hydrosphere absorption of, 146–147
inclined surfaces, 235–239
long-wavelength, 239–243
models of, 683
North America averages, 797f
penetration into water and soil, 78–79
reference year, 682
reflected, 228–230
seasonal, 73–78
spectral composition of, 56–59
spectral distribution, 59
tilted surfaces, 236f
turbidity, dependence on, 223–224
variability of, 243–246
wavelengths of, 85–86
weather system and seasonal periodicity of, 102
Solar thermal collection, 724
Solar thermal conversion, 472–488
optical subsystem and concentrators, 496–502
Solar wind, 58
Solid electrolyte cells, 516
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), 516
Solutions, energy relative to pure solvent, 301
Solvent refining, 529
South Korea
average annual solar radiation, 813f
average annual wind power potential, 814f
biofuels potentials, 812
offshore wind potential, 816f
Space heating, 28–29
demands for, 747f
inlet temperatures, 729
in PVT simulation, 735
wood-burning stoves and furnaces for, 523
Spectra, measurements of, 465–466
Spectral composition, of solar radiation, 56–59
Spectral distribution
of blackbody radiation, 60
of solar radiation, 59
of waves, 279
of wind speeds, 689
Spectral gap, wind, 259–260
Spending energy, 20
Spin states, 437
Stability of atmosphere, 193
Standardization institutions, 890–891
Standard reversible potential, 509
Standing crop, See Biomass, energy stored in
Starch sugar crops, 553
Stars
main-sequence, energy production in, 39–55
Start-up of power plants, See Power plants: operation
Status of technology
renewable energy, 971–973
Steady-state flow, 363f
Steam heating systems, 729
Stefan–Boltzmann’s law, 51–52
Stefan’s constant σ, 52
Steppe
albedo of, 166
overgrazing of, 166
Sterols, 546
Stochastically generated data, 682
Stochastic models, 759–761
Stomata, 337–338
Stone age, 24–25
Storage, See Energy storage
in atmosphere, types of, 93–94
build-up in human society of, 152
flat-plate collectors with heat storage, 484–488
Stoves, 522–523
Stratosphere, particulate matter residence times in, 84–85
Stream flow converters, See Turbines
Streamtubes, 389–390
defining, 390f
non-interacting, 389–394
Subsidies, 876–879
Subtropical forests, 147
Suez Canal, 689–694
dispersal modeling, 908
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126–127
Sulfur oxides, 172
Sun
convective layer, 57
energy production in, 39–55
energy transport equations for, 49–54
equilibrium processes in, 47–49
luminance distribution and azimuth relative to, 90f
radial model of, 55f
stability of, 39
structure of surface of, 57–58
Sun-facing walls, 472–473
Supercapacitors, 632
Superconducting storage, 634–635
Superconducting transmission lines, 574–575
Supply models
scenarios, 682–718
biofuel production, 715–718
biomass energy, 523
photovoltaic power, 683–685
wind power, 685–708
Supply scenarios, 682–718
biofuel production in, 715–718
food production in, 708–715
photovoltaic power production in, 683–685
wind power production in, 685–708
industry development, 689–702
Surface recombination velocity, 446–447
Surface re-radiation, 146
Surface temperatures
in joint ocean and atmosphere general circulation models, 134f
Surface tension of water, 123–124
Surf beat, 124
Surplus value, 853–854
SVL, See Statistical value of life
Synchronous DC electric generators, 399–400
Synthetic databases, 682
Systemic change, 909
System layout modeling, 653
System LCAs, 907
System-level analysis, 886–887
System optimization, 653
Systems for energy conversion, storage and supply, See Energy supply systems
T
Tangential interference factor, 391
TDHF, See Time-dependent Hartree-Foch
Technology
status of
batteries, 974
bioenergy conversion processes, 972
biogas, 972
biomass, 972
energy stores, 973–974
fuel cells, 974
geothermal energy, 973
hydrogen storage forms, 974
hydropower, 971
photovoltaic conversion, 973
TEM, See Terrestrial Ecosystem Model
Temperature gradients
in soil and air, 291–293
Temperatures
atmospheric aerosol content and global, 170
climatic history of trends in surface, 158f
in coupled ocean–atmosphere models, 134f
desert region ambient, 502
equilibrium distribution of, 145f
extreme, impacts of, 918
global
impacts of, 30–32
health impacts of changes in, 918–929
impact of extreme, 918
in Indian Ocean, 121f
inlet, 729
observed, 143f
ocean adjustments of, 123
oceans
adjustments in, 123
in Pacific Ocean, 122f
seasonal variations in, 182f
surface
in joint ocean and atmosphere general circulation models, 134f
zonal mean, 108
Terpenes, 546
Tertiary period, 159
Thermal decomposition, of water, 622
Thermionic generator, 371–372
Thermionic generators, 371–372
Thermocouple, 368f
Thermodynamic cooling cycles, 504
Thermodynamic theory, 357–359
Thermoelectric generator, 368–370
Thyristor converters, 573
utilization of, 285–286
production, 285–286
modeling, 205–211
Tilt angle, 219–221
Time discretization, in simulation models, 679–680
Time duration curve, See Power duration curve
Time variable, 651–653
Tip-loss factor, 394–395
Tip-vanes, on wind turbine rotors, 417–418
Topography, 693f
aggregation over sites and, 896–897
Total assessment, 884
Tower absorbers, 489f
Tracking collectors, 488
Tracking systems of solar collectors, 488
Tradable emission permits, 969–970
Trade winds, 104–105
Trailing vortices, 394
Transmission-absorption product, 477–478
Transmission intercontinental grid connections, 792f
of heat, 569–572
of power, 572–573
system aspects of, See Energy supply systems
Transmission networks, 651
Transportation, 672
Transport equation, 49–54
Transport of energy, 569
Trapping of electrons, 458
TRNSYS, 734
Trophic levels of ecological system, 333–334
Tropical forests, 147
albedo of, 166
Troposphere, particulate matter residence times in, 84–85
Tsunamis, 124
TTIP, 880
Turbidity
of air, 92
Turbidity coefficient, 223
wake wind speed and arrays of, 403–408
Turbulent convection, 191
Turbulent transport
See also Eddy diffusion parameter
See also Eddy diffusion parameter
of heat from Earth’s surface, 185–186
Twist, of airfoil, 394–395
U
Ultraviolet radiation, 80
Unanticipated event chains, 894–895
Uncertainty, in planning, 853
Underground cavities
adiabatic storage and, 614–618
LCA for, 951t
stability of, 614
Undershot waterwheels, 422
Underwater transmission lines, 573
hidden, 875
Unidirectional materials, 610–611
United Nations
population studies, 661
year 2050 population projections, 921–922
Uranium reserves, 152
climate modification and, 167
effect on climate, 167
Urban refuse, 523
Urea (CO(NH2)2), 155
U.S. wind atlas, 685–687
Utility buy-back schemes, 876
Utility system, electric, 572–573
V
Vacuums, in thermionic generators, 371
Valence band, 438
Value systems, 856
Variable-frequency wind energy converters, 420–421
Vector-borne diseases, 930
Vegetation cover, 915
Velocity profile
for stable atmosphere, 248
for unstable and neutral atmospheres, 248
Ventilation, See Air exchange
Vertical transport
in atmosphere, 176–184
water, 179–180
in Earth–atmosphere boundary layer, 99–100
geothermal heat fluxes, 183
water and heat disposition in soils, 180–183
Vestas, 414
Virial theorem, 53–54
Viscous flow of water, 123–124
Volcanic activity, 161
Volcanic eruptions, particulate matter in atmosphere and, 84–85
von Karman’s constant, 184
Vortex systems, 419–420
W
Wake, 403–408
of wind turbines, restoration of wind profile in, 403–408
Wake streamlines, 419–420
Wake wind speed, 403–408
Warm start, 753
Washout, 84
Water
needs in 2050 scenario, 669
thermal decomposition of, 622
Water cycle, 114–117
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 126
man’s interference with, 149–152
run-off, 118f
schematic for, 118f
Water flows, See Currents, Hydropower
Water fluxes
across atmosphere-to-ocean/continent boundary, 114–115
latitude dependence of, 116f
Water heaters, solar, 474
Water mills, 25–26
Water potential in plants, 337–338
Water requirement for biomass production, 338
Water storage, 577–580
Water transport, vertical, in atmosphere, 179–180
Water vapor
condensation in atmosphere, 180
heat distribution and, 190f
vertical transport of, 177
Waterwall incineration, 523–524
Waterwheels, 382
undershot, 422
Wave energy conversion, 426–434
oscillating-vane converter, 431–434
pneumatic converter, 428–431
tuning, 432
energy flux associated with, 210
formation and dissipation of energy in, 209–210
amplitude, 123–124
climatic impact of energy utilization, 157
dissipation of energy in, 209–210
energy presently stored in, 297
fetch limited, 276
formation by wind stress, 210–211
maximum amplitude of, 209f
power in, 210
tidal, See Tidal energy
zero crossing period of, 275
Waves, 265–286
capillary, 703
gravity, 207–208
modeling, 205–211
ocean, 274–279
satellite measurement of, 703
tidal, 206–207
Westerlies, 104–105
Whitecaps, 180
formation on waves, 703
White Earth state, 163–166
in coupled ocean–atmosphere models, 133f
data on speeds, 250–254
flow over hills, 248–250
frequency distribution of, 254–255
geostrophic, 186
height scaling and distribution, 254–255
horizontal profile, 247–250
interference factors, 404–405
in joint ocean–atmosphere models, 128
observed directions, 141f
observed speeds, 139f
power duration curves, 262–264
restoration of kinetic energy in, 403–404
scale of atmospheric motion and, 101
trade winds, 104–105
variability of power in, 259–264
velocities, 247–255
velocity profiles, 248
wake speed of, 403–408
westerlies, 104–105
conversion of flows, 385–389
historical utilization, 23t
ocean waves, in climatic context, 282
at sea, 978–979
sustained rate of formation
commercial development, 694–695
base-load operation, 764
peak-following operation, 764
arrays of converters, 420–421
augmenting devices, 768
blade-element theory, 401
cost evaluation, system without storage, 758f
cost evaluation, system with storage, 980
cross-wind converters, 410
ducted rotors, 415–417
fuel production, 420–421
heat production, 420–421
mixed systems without storage, 750–752
mixed systems with short-term storage, 763–765
non-uniform wind conditions, 400–403
offshore output, 702–708
power production, 685–708
propeller-type converters, 389–409
pumping, 421
system with long-term storage, 771
wind field behind converter, 419–420
Wind energy converters
alternative devices, 418–421
basic descriptions of, 381–389
building integration of, 420
cross-wind and alternative concepts, 410–415
Darrieus-type, 410–414
ducted rotors, 415–417
floating offshore, 409
heat, electrical/mechanical power, and fuel generation, 420–421
model behavior of power output and matching to load, 394–400
multiple rotor configurations, 414
non-uniform wind velocity and, 400–403
propeller-type, 389–409
size limits, 408–409
variable-frequency, 420–421
vortex systems, 419–420
wind profile restoration in wake of, 403–408
Wind fields
non-laminar, 404–405
undisturbed, 405
Wind-forecasting models, 761–762
shaft power, 421
Windows
indirect gains through, 730–731
as passive solar heating, 472
solar cells in, 460
Wind parks, 688, 688–689, 689, 692f, 695f, 698–702
See also Wind energy conversion: arrays of converters
See also Wind energy conversion: arrays of converters
decisions to build, 706–707
Wind power, 149
average production, year 2000, 12f
average production, year 2013, 13f
in China 2050 model, 825f
industry development, 689–702
locations, 688
North America average potentials for, 798f
advantages of, 708
estimating production, 702–708
Japan, Korean and Chinese coast potentials, 816f
power transmission issues, 573–575
production, 685–708
production cost, 15–16
in supply scenarios, 685–708
system simulation, 746–765
stochastic model, 759–761
study results, 765–771
wind-forecasting model for, 761–762
with long-term storage, 771
with short-term storage, 763–765
Wind stress, See Shearing stress
design optimization, 698
ducted rotors, 415–417
efficiency curves for, 700f
floating offshore, 409
locations and modeling production, 688
non-linear response, 392
power coefficients for, 751f
wake wind speed and arrays of, 403–408
Wings, 385
WKB method, 43–44
Wood
charcoal conversion of, 523
Wood-burning stoves and furnaces, 523
Wood energy, 522–523
Woodfuel, 14f
World economy, 33
World Health Organization, 904
World population
in 2013, 12f
A1B scenario projections, 921–922
distribution of, 28–29
density in 1994, 665f
density in 2050 scenario, 665f
stabilization of, 969
X
X-ray diffraction, 313
Y
Yawing of wind energy device, 258–259
Yeast fermentation, 545
Z
Zonal mean temperatures, 108
Zonal motion, 108
Zymomonas mobilis, 546
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