Index
A
acetals, 369–70
acetins, 371
acetogenesis, 478
acetol, 375–6
acetylation, 816
acid-catalysed glycerol dehydration, 375–6
acid catalysts, 162
acid pretreatment, 489
acidogenesis, 478
Acremonium cellulolyticus, 212
acrolein, 375–6
acrylated epoxidised soy oil (AESO), 755
acrylic acid, 375–6
activated carbon, 677–80
activated sludge, 701
active biopackaging, 854–5
adsorption capacity, 147
adsorptive beads
removal of non-ionic impurities, 124–6
comparative study for removal of furfural and HMF from RW-EDI-treated corn stover, 125
affinity chromatography, 608
Agency for Renewable Resources, 512
Agri-Pure, 584
Alcell process, 669
alcohol fuels, 397–405
Brazil, 397–8
China, 404–5
European Union, 403–4
spark-ignition engines, 407–17
dedicated alcohol engines, 414–15
efficiency, 413–14
octane numbers, 411–12
performance, 413
pollutant emission, deposits and lubricant dilution, 415–17
vapour pressure, 410–11
volumetric energy density and stoichiometry, 408–10
United States, 398–403
alternative fuel consumption in the US road transport sector, 399
evolution of ethanol production by country since 2007, 400
renewable fuel volume requirements for RFS2, 401
alcoholysis, See transesterification
aldehydes, 847–8
proteins, 604–5
algae-derived bioactive peptides, 605–6
alginates, 833
alkaloids, 612
alkyl branched fatty compounds, 589
Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA), 402–3
Amazonian dark earth (ADE), 529
Amberlyst-15, 634–5
amino acid, 342–3
isolation, 727–8
ammonia, 486
amylose, 832
anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), 484
anaerobic bio-reactors, 481–5
basic anaerobic digesters, 482
anaerobic digestion (AD), 108
biomethane and biohydrogen production via fermentation, 476–513
basic principles of biogas and hydrogen production, 477–81
biogas and hydrogen production and technological aspects, 481–92
future trends, 513
methane production from different feedstocks, 492–507
anaerobic filters, 484
anaerobic lagoons, 481
anaerobic technology, 513
analysis methods, 705–6
Anammox, 503–4
animal fats, 455
animal feed industry, 772
antibiotics, 790
antifoaming agents, 570
antinutritional factors (ANF), 774
antisense RNA (asRNA), 251
antiwear, 570
aqueous-phase reforming (APR), 629–30
arabinoxylan (AX), 311
arabinoxylan-based films, 828
ARBOFORM, 676
Archer Daniels Midland (ADM), 722–3
Arthrospira, 97
ash, 530
Aspen Plus, 100
models, 222
astaxanthins, 613
autocondensation reactions, 744
automotive applications, 571
auxiliary enzymes, 271
B
bacteria, 700–1
bacterial cellulose, 836
bagasse, 42
bakery waste, 325
bark charcoal, 547
batch retort, 534–6
battery electric vehicle (BEV), 392–3
beehive kilns, 534
beeswax, 712
bench-top fermentations, 316
benchmarking enzymes
enzymatic conversion processes, 220–5
state of enzyme technology, 220–1
techno-economic modeling, 221–5
bio-based animal feed
background, 772–5
demand for feed attributes and trends, 774–5
history of distilling co-products, 772–3
scale of bioethanol production, 773–4
types, properties and processing, 771–93
feed ingredients, 775–83
future trends, 791–3
impact of process technology on co-product quality, 784–6
improving feedstocks, processes and yields, 786–9
regulatory issues, 789–91
bio-based chemicals
biorefining of carbohydrate conversion and utilisation, 624–51
chemical hydrolysis of cellulose to sugars, 629–35
future trends, 650–1
routes to market for bio-based feedstocks, 646–50
types and properties of carbohydrate-based chemicals, 635–45
biorefining of lignin conversion and utilisation, 659–84
applications of lignin and lignin-based products, 672–84
emerging processes for lignin production, 668–72
future trends, 684
structure and properties of lignin, 660–3
biorefining of lipid and wax conversion and utilisation, 693–715
future trends, 714–15
methods of extraction and analysis, 703–6
sources, 697–702
types and properties, 694–7
utilisation, 707–14
biorefining of protein conversion and utilisation, 721–32
alternative and novel feedstocks and production routes, 730–1
(bio)chemical conversion of amino acids to platform and specialty chemicals, 728–30
future trends, 731–2
protein and amino acid sources derived from biofuel production, 722–4
protein isolation, hydrolysis and isolation of amino acid and chemical feedstocks, 724–8
LCA results, 78–81
life cycle of biorefinery vs conventional products, 79
sustainable carbohydrate sources, 625–9
biochemical and thermochemical routes for lignocellulose conversion, 627
conversion of lignocellulose to cellulose via fractionation, 628
structure of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose contained within lignocellulose, 626
bio-based composites
biomass usage to produce building materials, 803–17
fibre properties, 807–8
fibre types and isolation, 804–7
fibrous plants, 804
future trends, 817
improving performance properties, 815–17
history, 803–4
selection based on density, 810
illustration, 810
types, 808–15
fibreboard, 811–13
filters and sorbents, 814
geotextiles, 814
moulded products, 813
particleboard, 811
waferboard and flakeboard, 810–11
types and properties, 808–15
moisture, biological, ultraviolet and thermal properties, 814–15
bio-based feedstocks
challenges for process design, 647–50
liquid crystal templating route to form mesoporous silica and macro-mesoporous SBA-15, 648
routes to market, 646–50
challenges and opportunities for bio-based products, 646–7
bio-based films
processes for production, 822–4
basic scheme of steps of casting process to produce films, 823
schematic representation of an extruder, 824
bio-based nutraceuticals
carbohydrate-based nutraceuticals, 606–9
future trends, 613–14
lipid-based nutraceuticals, 599–603
other nutraceuticals, 609–13
protein and peptide-based nutraceuticals, 604–6
bio-based products
challenges and opportunities, 646–7
near commercial and future commercial bio-based chemicals, 646
Bio-Methanol Chemie Nederland (BMCN), 722–3
bio-oil production, 144
deoxygenation by cracking, 173–4
hydrodeoxygenation, 174–5
bioactive biopackaging, 854–5
bioactive polysaccharides, 606–8
bioadhesives
types, processing and properties for wood and fibres, 736–65
carbohydrate adhesives, 751–2
future trends, 762–5
lignin adhesives, 745–9
mixed tanin-lignin adhesives, 749–50
protein adhesives, 750–1
tannin adhesives, 737–45
unsaturated oil adhesives, 752–5
wood welding without adhesives, 755–62
biochar
agricultural usages, 529–31
SEM examination of surface of Terra Preta particle, 530
wood and bamboo soaking in pond at edge of rice paddy field, 531
effects of application to soil, 527–9
wood biochar extracted from soil, 528
larger-scale commercial production, 538–41
Black is Green pyrolysis kiln and Pro-natural kiln, 541
Energy Farmers Australia Pty Ltd portable pyrolyser, 542
Genesis continuous pyrolysis plant, 542
Sanli New Energy Company factory, 543
schematic of Pacific Pyrolysis unit, 540
markets and usages, 544–8
slow release fertiliser produced from minerals, 546
production, 531–8
household devices, 531–2
ovens, retorts and kilns, 532–8
production and application in soils, 525–50
appendix of IBI standardised product definition and product testing guidelines, 554–5
future trends, 548–50
testing properties, 541–4
Japanese Standard courtesy of Japan Special Forest Product Promotion Association, 544
test Category B characteristics and criteria, 545
biochemical biorefineries
bioproducts, 42–6
capacity costs for lignocellulosic ethanol biorefineries employing dilute acid, 45
capital costs for first generation ethanol biorefineries, 43
operating costs for first generation ethanol biorefineries, 43
operating costs for lignocellulosic ethanol biorefineries employing dilute acid, 45
biochemical catalysts, 225
biochemical conversion, 200–11
amino acids to platform and specialty chemicals, 728–30
glutamic acid for production of chemicals, 729
simultaneous production of styrene and acrylic acid, 730
basic unit process steps for conversion of biomass to product, 201
enzymatic hydrolysis and product fermentation, 206–11
consolidation bioprocessing (CBP), 210–11
hybrid hydrolysis and fermentation (HHF), 209–10
separate hydrolysis and fermentation, 208
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, 208–9
process integration pretreatment and hydrolysis interface, 203–6
biodegradability, 6
biodegradable food packaging, 832
advantages and limitations, 461–5
cold flow properties and oxidative stability, 463–5
feedstock availability, 462–3
production, 366
renewable diesel production methods, 441–65
feedstock quality issues, 458–61
future trends, 465
overview, 442
renewable diesel production routes, 442–3
traditional and emerging feedstocks, 454–8
routes of production, 444–54
heterogeneous catalysts, 445–51
purification by adsorbents and resins, 453–4
supercritical processing, 452–3
transesterification of triacylglyceride, 444
ultrasonic processing, 451–2
bioeconomy, 84
bioelements isolation, 805
bioenergetics, 249
bioenergy, 242
bioethanol, 355
co-product process improvements, 787–9
production scale, 773–4
biofuels production for 2008 to 2011, 774
bioethanol fuel-focused biorefineries
developments, 259–94
design options for biorefining process, 279–80
different types of ethanol biorefineries, 282–8
ethanol biorefineries, 261–3
process intensification and increasing dry-matter content, 280–2
world total ethanol production since 1975 together with two major fuel producers, 260
future trends, 288–94
future crops, 293–4
industrialisation and process development, 288–9
lessons from LCA studies, 292–3
lignocellulose to ethanol process, 263
composition of various lignocellulose feedstocks, 267–8
fermentation, 272–3
inhibitor tolerance, 276–8
pentose utilisation, 273–6
pretreatment, 263
schematic process overview, 266
thermo-tolerance, 278
bioethanol plants, 792
biofuel production, 725–6
evolution of biomass processing strategies featuring enzymatic hydrolysis, 241
rationale for CBP, 242
protein and amino acid sources, 722–4
rest streams usage, 723–4
LCA results, 74–7
comparative environmental impacts breakdown for ethanol production, 77
GHG emissions, 75
GHG savings per hectare as a function of lignocellulosic crop yields, 76
recovery, 134–41
Biofuels Directive, 773
process outline, 477
biogas digester, 548
biohydrogen
biomethane production via anaerobic digestion and fermentation, 476–513
basic principles of biogas and hydrogen production, 477–81
biogas and hydrogen production and technological aspects, 481–92
future trends, 513
methane production from different feedstocks, 492–507
removal of biogas components based on biogas utilisation, 511
technology, 485–8
biological attack, 203
biological pretreatment, 491
components of packaging films and coatings, 822
basic and optional components, 822
conversion, 98–9
application of typical conversion routes, 99
production, 97–8
cycles of chemicals from biomass and oil, 8
process boundary considerations, 98
products as crosslinking agents for packaging materials, 844–9
aldehydes, 847–8
genipin, 846–7
phenolic compounds, 845–6
schematic representation of crosslinking of polymer chains, 845
products as film plasticisers, 842–4
mono- and disaccharides, 843–4
polyols, 843
representative scheme of effect of plasticisers, 842
products as reinforcements for packaging materials, 849–53
cellulosic reinforcements, 849–52
chitin and chitosan nanostructures, 852–3
microscale to nanoscale, 849
starch nanoreinforcements, 852
pyrolysis, 159–60
micrograph of SBA-15 ordered mesoporous material, 160
resources, 804
usage for packaging films and coatings, 819–56
future trends, 853–5
processes for producing bio-based films, 822–4
processes for producing edible coatings, 825–6
products, 826–42
usage to produce bio-based composites and building materials, 803–17
fibre properties, 807–8
fibre types and isolation, 804–7
fibrous plants, 804
future trends, 817
improving performance properties, 815–17
types and properties, 808–15
biomass active enzymes, 213
biomass limit, 423–4
biomass pretreatment
consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), 234–53
microorganisms, enzyme systems and bioenergetics, 245–9
models, 243–4
organism development, 249–53
plant biomass polymers, 236
various physical pretreatment and effects on biomass structure, 237–40
biomass syngas shift, 181
biomethane
biohydrogen production via anaerobic digestion and fermentation, 476–513
basic principles of biogas and hydrogen production, 477–81
biogas and hydrogen production and technological aspects, 481–92
future trends, 513
methane production from different feedstocks, 492–507
bioplastics, 713–14
bioprocess, 15
defining bio-processing and, 14–15
sustainability, 14
economic assessment, 36–47
bioproducts from biochemical biorefineries, 42–6
bioproducts from thermochemical biorefineries, 37–42
capital and operating costs, 46
power generation, 46–7
environmental and sustainability assessment, 67–84
future trends, 83–4
interaction between technology and environment, 71
life cycle assessment, 74–81
methodological foundations of technologies, 68–74
results from assessment of economic and social aspects, 81–3
enzymatic processes and enzyme development, 199–226
advantages and limitations of techniques, 225
benchmarking enzymes and enzymatic conversion processes, 220–5
biochemical conversion, 200–11
future trends, 225–6
optimising enzymes, 212–20
technology and techniques, 211–12
mixed feedstock source of chemicals, energy, fuels and materials, 11
overview of concept, 90
planning. design and development, 92–101
design and synthesis, 94–7
engineering considerations on up-scaling and implementation, 97–101
information flow cascades, 96
initial feedstock and product considerations, 92–4
plant design, engineering and process optimisation, 89–108
case study, 101–4
future trends, 107–8
microalgae biomass, 91–2
optimising processes using process analysis, 106–7
technological processes, 13
types and product areas, 15–17
available biomass feedstocks, 16
thermochemical and biochemical processes, 17
upgrading biorefinery operations, 104–6
biomass feedstock production and logistics, 104–5
biomass pretreatment and conversion, 105–6
process energy output and consumption, 106
biorefining
bio-based chemicals of carbohydrate conversion and utilisation
chemical hydrolysis of cellulose to sugars, 629–35
future trends, 650–1
routes to market for bio-based feedstocks, 646–50
sustainable carbohydrate sources, 625–9
types and properties of carbohydrate-based chemicals, 635–45
bio-based chemicals of lignin conversion and utilisation, 659–84
applications of lignin and lignin-based products, 672–84
emerging processes for lignin production, 668–72
future trends, 684
structure and properties of lignin, 660–3
bio-based chemicals of lipid and wax conversion and utilisation, 693–715
future trends, 714–15
methods of extraction and analysis, 703–6
sources, 697–702
types and properties, 694–7
utilisation, 707–14
bio-based chemicals of protein conversion and utilisation, 721–32
alternative and novel feedstocks and production routes, 730–1
biochemical conversion of amino acids to platform ans specialty chemicals, 728–30
future trends, 731–2
protein and amino acid sources derived from biofuel production, 722–4
protein isolation, hydrolysis and isolation of amino acid and chemical feedstocks, 724–8
bio-based nutraceuticals, 596–615
carbohydrate-based nutraceuticals, 606–9
future trends, 613–14
lipid-based nutraceuticals, 599–603
other nutraceuticals, 609–13
protein and peptide-based nutraceuticals, 604–6
catalytic process and catalyst development, 152–86
biomass products upgrading, 160–84
depolymerisation of biomass, 153–60
future trends, 184–6
current and emerging separation technologies, 112–48
biofuels recovery by solvent extraction in ionic liquid assisted membrane contactor, 134–41
glycerin desalting as value added co-product from biodiesel production, 126–8
impurities removal from lignocellulosic biomass hydrolysate liquor for cellulosic sugars, 121–6
performance indices, 144–7
separation technologies, 114–21
solvent extraction and example of recovery of value added proteins from DSG, 130–4
succinic acid production, 128–30
trends for advanced biofuels, 141–4
biorefining process
design options, 279–80
separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) or simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), 279–80
bioresins, 753–4
biotechnology, 225
BioTemp, 573
black liquor, 289
bovine milk proteins, 839
brittleness, 842–3
Brönsted acids, 640
building materials
biomass usage to produce bio-based composites, 803–17
fibre properties, 807–8
fibre types and isolation, 804–7
fibrous plants, 804
future trends, 817
improving performance properties, 815–17
types and properties, 808–15
bulk delignification, 666
C
C5 sugars conversion
furfural, 642–3
biphasic system for reactive ring opening of furfural to maleic acid, 643
oxidative ring opening of furfural to succinic acid, 643
C6 sugars conversion
5-HMF, 639–42
biphasic system for reactive extraction during acid-catalysed fructose dehydration, 642
potential chemical feedstocks derived from 5-HMF, 639
proposed acid and base-catalysed pathways in dehydration of glucose, 640
cactus mucilages, 835–6
caffeic, 845–6
canola oil, 454–5
capital costs, 38
carbohydrate active enzyme systems, 245–6
Carbohydrate-Active EnZYmes, 212–13
carbohydrate adhesives, 751–2
carbohydrate-based chemicals
types and properties, 635–45
biochemical conversion of carbohydrates, 635–8
conversion of C6 sugars to 5-HMF, 639–42
conversion of C5 sugars to furfural, 642–3
lactic acid synthesis, 644–5
levulinic acid production, 643–4
possible platform chemicals produced from biomass, 636
thermochemical conversion of carbohydrates, 638–9
carbohydrate-based nutraceuticals, 606–9
bioactive polysaccharides, 606–8
structure of lentinan, 607
extraction and purification of polysaccharides, 608
prebiotics, 608–9
carbohydrate binding module (CBM), 213
carbohydrate conversion
bio-based chemicals from biorefining and utilisation, 624–51
chemical hydrolysis of cellulose to sugars, 629–35
future trends, 650–1
routes to market for bio-based feedstocks, 646–50
sustainable carbohydrate sources, 625–9
types and properties of carbohydrate-based chemicals, 635–45
carbohydrate utilisation
bio-based chemicals from biorefining and carbohydrate conversion, 624–51
chemical hydrolysis of cellulose to sugars, 629–35
future trends, 650–1
routes to market for bio-based feedstocks, 646–50
sustainable carbohydrate sources, 625–9
types and properties of carbohydrate-based chemicals, 635–45
carbohydrates, 751–2
biochemical conversion, 635–8
alternative routes to adipic acid from biomass or petroleum feedstocks, 637
selected acid catalysed or hydrogenation products of succinic acid, 638
hydrolysing species, 245
thermochemical conversion, 638–9
major components formed via thermochemical processing of hemicellulose and cellulose, 639
carbon black, 677–80
carbon dioxide, 478–9
carbon dioxide supercritical extraction, 704
carbon fibre, 677–80
carbon sources, 318
carboxylation, 178
carotenes, 613
carrageenans, 835
case studies, 61
casein, 839
cashew nut shell liquid, 754
cashew tree gum (CTG), 835
catalysis, 105
catalyst development
catalytic process in biorefining, 152–86
biomass products upgrading, 160–84
depolymerisation of biomass, 153–60
future trends, 184–6
catalysts, 444
catalytic aerobic oxidation, 643
catalytic cracking, 181–2
catalytic process
catalyst development in biorefining, 152–86
biomass products upgrading, 160–84
depolymerisation of biomass, 153–60
future trends, 184–6
cell contents, 341
cell walls, 340–1
Cellic enzymes, 223
cellobiohydrolases, 215
cellobiosephosphorylase, 247
cellulolytic bacteria, 245
cellulolytic enzymes, 253
hydrolysis, 702
utilisation, 252
cellulose conversion
ionic liquids, 631–5
acidic ILs explored in cellulose hydrolysis, 634
common cations and anions usage, 632
disruption of hydrogen bonding network, 633
cellulose fibres, 849–50
cellulosic biofuel producer tax credit (CBPTC), 49
cellulosic reinforcements, 849–52
centrifugation, 504
cereal-based biorefineries
developments, 303–26
fuel ethanol production from wheat, 308–12
future trends, 322–6
succinic acid production from wheat, 312–16
utilisation of wheat straw, 320–2
wheat-based biorefineries, 304–7
future trends, 322–6
valorisation of generic cereal-based waste streams, 325–6
valorisation of industrial cereal-based waste and by-product streams, 323–5
chain saw oils, 572
charge-based membrane separations, 117–19
chemi-mechanical forces, 850–1
chemical crosslinking, 844–5
chemical hydrolysis
acid hydrolysis, 629–30
reaction scheme for aqueous phase reforming of cellulose to alkanes, 630
cellulose to sugars, 629–35
cellulose conversion in ionic liquids, 631–5
heterogeneous catalysts for cellulose conversion to platform chemicals, 630–1
chemical industry, 372–9
chemical oxygen demand (COD), 504
chemical precipitation, 503–4
chemical pulping, 807
chemical reaction system, 451
Chinese National Standardisation Technical Committee for Bamboo and Rattan, 542–3
chitin whiskers, 852–3
chitosan, 833–4
nanostructures, 852–3
cholesterol, 711–12
Chrysosporium lucknowense, 212
cinnamaldehyde, 847–8
Cladosiphon okamuranus, 607
Clean Air Act Amendments, 398
clean-in-place (CIP), 116
closed systems, 569
Clostridium thermocellum, 212
cloud point (CP), 463
co-fermentation, 280
coatings
biomass usage for packaging films, 819–56
components, 822
crosslinking agents for packaging materials, 844–9
film plasticisers, 842–4
future trends, 853–5
processes for producing bio-based films, 822–4
processes for producing edible coatings, 825–6
products, 826–42
reinforcements for packaging materials, 849–53
dispersion, 825–6
cold filter plugging point (CFPP), 463
cold flow properties, 463–5
oxidative stability, 463–5
examples of cloud points of biodiesel from different feedstocks, 464
Common Agriculture Policy (CAP), 338
complex glycoside hydrolase systems, 246–7
structural representation of cellulosome as macromolecular enzyme complex, 248
composting, 21
compressed natural gas (CNG), 400
compressor oils, 573
concrete release agents, 573
condensed distillers solubles (CDS), 782–3
condensed polyflavonoid tannins, 738–41
condensed tannins, 737–8
biomass pretreatment, 234–53
organism development, 249–53
engineered, 244
natural vs engineered CBP by differentiating unit operations, 244
microorganisms, enzyme systems and bioenergetics, 245–9
bioenergetics, 249
carbohydrate active enzyme systems, 245–6
CBP microorganisms, 245
complex glycoside hydrolase systems, 246–7
mode of action, 247–9
non-complex glycoside hydrolase systems, 246
models, 243–4
ruminant or natural, 243–4
contact digester, 483
continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTRs), 481–3
conventional filtration, 115–16
conversion route divergence, 143
copolymer, 674–6
corn gluten meal, 782
corporate average fuel economy (CAFE), 420
CORTERRA, 373–4
cosmetics, 712
cost-benefit analysis (CBA), 70
cotton gin, 807
cottonseed protein bioplastics (CBP), 713–14
biofuel yields, 499–500
crosslinking agents
aldehydes, 847–8
chemical structure of cinnamaldehyde, 847
periodate oxidation of glucose residue in polysaccharide and Schiff’s reaction, 848
genipin, 846–7
chemical structure, 846
phenolic compounds, 845–6
crude glycerol phase, 366–7
crude protein, 343
cryo crushing, 850–1
crystallisation, 365–6
current efficiency, 147
cyclopropanated oils, 587
conversion of TAG oil by carbene insertion into double bond, 588
D
Darcy’s Law, 146
dark fermentation, 479
de-watering process, 504
decanters, 787–8
decorticating machine, 807
dedicated alcohol engines, 414–15
dedicated energy crops, 47
degree of polymerisation (DP), 203
dehydration, 177–8
deoxygenation, 164–6
cracking, 173–4
deproteinated brown juice, 349
detoxification, 207
dialdehyde polysaccharides, 848
dialysis, 365–6
dietary fibres, 608
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), 597
dilute acid pretreatment, 205
dipping, 825–6
direct carbonation, 378
Directive 99/31/EC, 18
Directive 2003/108/EC, 5
Directive (EC 1907/2006), 5
disaccharides, 843–4
disk stack, 788
dissolved oxygen tension (DOT), 280
global production from 2002 to 2011, 776
nutritional value as feed ingredient, 775–7
nutritional content of wheat vs wheat DDGS vs maize DDGS, 777
usage globally in animal feed sectors, 778
processing issues, 778
variability in production, 777
distiller’s grains and solubles (DSG), 130–4
distinct conversion processes, 142
dolomite, 157–8
double-zero rapeseed oil, 454–5
dry-forming process, 811–12
dry process, 824
drying technologies, 784–5
freeze drying, 785
ring drying, 784–5
spray drying, 785
Dunaliella salina, 94–5
Dupont, 646–7
E
eco-hydraulic oils, 572
economic assessment, 36–47
edible coatings
processes for production, 825–6
basic steps to prepare and apply a coating to food surface, 825
electrospinning, 850–1
elucidation, 216–17
emerging feedstocks, 456–8
emerging lignin products, 677–84
activated carbon and carbon black and carbon fibre, 677–80
physical properties of lignin and carbon black reinforces styrene-butadien copolymer rubber, 678
antioxidants, 677
enzymatically treated lignins, 683–4
platform chemicals, 680–3
major thermochemical lignin conversion processes and potential products, 680
Emerging Sustainability Assessment Framework, 70
emission reduction units (ERU), 52
Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), 52
endo-1,4-β-glucanases, 216
endo-β-xylanases, 217–18
endoglucanases, 245
energy biorefinery, 284
energy carriers, 390–4
energy crops, 493
biofuel yields, 494–8
estimation of electricity potential of various energy crops, 493
Energy Policy Act (2005), 49
energy products, 354–5
bioethanol, 355
biogas, 354–5
thermal combustion, 354
engine management system (EMS), 418–19
engineered consolidated bioprocessing, 244
environmental impact assessment (EIA), 70
environmental risk assessment (ERA), 70
EnviroTemp Fr-3, 573
enzymatic catalysts, 162
enzymatic conversion processes, 220–5
enzymatic dehydrogenation, 660–1
enzymatic processes
enzyme development in biorefining, 199–226
advantages and limitations of techniques, 225
benchmarking enzymes and enzymatic conversion processes, 220–5
biochemical conversion, 200–11
future trends, 225–6
optimising enzymes, 212–20
technology and techniques, 211–12
enzymatically treated lignins, 683–4
enzyme development
enzymatic processes in biorefining, 199–226
advantages and limitations of techniques, 225
benchmarking enzymes and enzymatic conversion processes, 220–5
biochemical conversion, 200–11
future trends, 225–6
optimising enzymes, 212–20
technology and techniques, 211–12
enzyme technology
benchmarking, 220–1
novozymes achieved further 1.9-fold dose reduction during second DOE-funded project, 222
novozymes achieved sex-fold enzyme dose reduction during DOE-subcontract to NREL, 221
enzymes, 786
catalysis, 155
epichloridrin, 378
epoxidised soybean oil, 587–8
epoxy resins, 676
essential oils, 712
estrolide esters, 585–7
synthetic scheme of production, 586
estrolide lubricants technology, 586–7
ethanol, 403
ethanol biorefineries, 261–3
classification and availability of various lignocellulose sources, 264–5
conceptual picture of biorefinery showing main technology choices, 262
different types, 282–8
commodity chemicals potentially derived from lignocellulose feedstocks, 286–7
conceptual figure for C5-driven bioethanol-based biorefinery, 284
conceptual figure for energy-driven bioethanol-based biorefinery, 283
conceptual figure for lignin-driven bioethanol-based biorefinery, 283
operational demonstration plants and commercial plants currently under construction, 285
European Bioethanol Fuel Association, 773
European Food Standards Agency (EFSA), 789
European Union (EU), 396–7
subsidy programs, 51–2
evaporation, 504
Excel-based model, 223
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), 414–15
exoglucanases, 246
expansins, 218
extended range electric vehicles (EREV), 392–3
extreme pressure (EP), 570
extrusion, 824
Exxon Valdez-sised spills, 564
F
Fabaceae, 336
fatty acid composition, 575–6
fatty acid esters, 568
fed-batch mode, 319–20
feed additives, 790–1
feedstock availability, 462–3
feedstock variability, 141–2
feedstocks, 293–4
emerging, 456–8
fatty acid compositions of oils, 458
quality issues, 458–61
high content of free fatty acids, 458–9
impurities that affect product quality, 459–61
traditional, 454–6
fatty acid compositions of common seed oils and animal fats, 456
biomethane and biohydrogen production via anaerobic digestion, 476–513
basic principles of biogas and hydrogen production, 477–81
biogas and hydrogen production and technological aspects, 481–92
future trends, 513
methane production from different feedstocks, 492–507
fertilisation, 344–5
fertiliser, 505–6
fibre saturation point (FSP), 814–15
fibre types, 804–5
six general types of natural fibres, 806
properties, 811–13
fibres
bioadhesives types, processing and properties for wood, 736–65
carbohydrate adhesives, 751–2
future trends, 762–5
lignin adhesives, 745–9
mixed tanin-lignin adhesives, 749–50
protein adhesives, 750–1
tannin adhesives, 737–45
unsaturated oil adhesives, 752–5
wood welding without adhesives, 755–62
properties, 807–8
chemical composition of some natural fibres, 808
mechanical properties of some natural fibres, 809
tensile and flexural properties of some natural fibres, 809
fibrous plants, 804
global inventory of biofibres, 805
film casting methods, 823
film plasticisers, 842–4
filter systems, 814
fish oils, 600
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), 639–40
flakeboard, 810–11
flame ionisation detector (FID), 706
flash vaporisation, 122–3
representation of physical sensor system to detect concentration of ethanol, 420
representation of virtual sensor system to detect concentration of ethanol, 419
flocculation, 504
fluidised beds, 484
Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations (FAO), 325
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 597
food packaging, 854–5
Food Safety Modernisation Act, 789
hydrogen production usage, 510
methane yield, 508–9
forage-based biorefineries
developments, 335–55
field to biorefinery and impact of herbage chemical composition, 340–7
green biorefinery products, 347–55
overview, 336–9
forage crop harvesting, 346
formate, 478
formic acid pulping, 670
fossil waxes, 700–1
fouling, 146
Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 830
free amino nitrogen (FAN), 310
free fatty acids (FFAs), 444
freeze drying, 785
frictional wood welding systems, 758–62
high speed rotation dowel welding, 760–2
schematic example of frictional movement usage, 761
SEM image of interface of dowel welded to substrate, 762
well-welded dowel where two pieces joined by clamping during dowel insertion, 761
linear vibration welding, 758–60
examples of different butt joints obtained by endgrain welding of oak wood, 760
schematic example of frictional movement usage, 759
fuel ethanol production
wheat, 308–12
integrated wheat-based fuel ethanol and arabinoxylan (AX) production process, 311
typical first generation process, 309
worldwide fuel ethanol production from 2006 to 2011, 308
fuel synthesis, 425–7
functional fibres, 679
fungal autolysis, 307
fungal enzymes, 208
fungal fermentation, 307
fungi, 700
furans, 277
platform, 166–8
furfural, 642–3
future crops, 293–4
G
galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), 609
galactomannan films, 828–9
γ-Valerolactone platform, 170–2
garapa, 42
gas chromatography (GC), 706
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), 706
gas clean-up system, 539
gassification
biomass, 156–8
usages of syngas, 157
gel permeation, 608
gelatin, 838–9
General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS), 310
general separations platforms, 143
generally regarded as safe (GRAS), 273
generic cereal-based waste streams, 325–6
generic fermentation feedstock, 323–4
genetic engineering, 272–3
genetic modification potential, 792–3
feedstock, 793
microorganisms usage in biorefining, 793
genipin, 846–7
chemical structure, 846
Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius, 212
geographical information systems (GIS), 94
geotextiles, 814
GH61s proteins, 216–17
Gibbs free energy, 95
gliadin films, 848
global industry analyst forecast, 564–5
glucosinolates, 612
gluten, 840–1
glyceraldehyde, 377
glyceric acid, 377
glycerin, 444–5
glycerin desalting
value added co-product from biodiesel production, 126–8
different pathways for production of various useful chemicals, 127
reaction scheme of biodiesel, 126
removal efficiency for NaCl from simulated crude glycerin solution, 128
schematic desalting of crude glycerin stream using resin wafer-EDI, 127
composition and purification produced from biodiesel, 365–7
average composition of crude glycerin from Brazilian biodiesel plant, 366
dehydration to acrolein and acrylic acid, 375–6
oxidative dehydration, 376
gasification, 368
glycerol to propanediols, 372–4
hydrogenolysis of glycerol over metal catalysts to afford 1,2 and 1,3 propanediols, 373
production of PTT from reaction of terephthalic acid and glycerol, 373
glycerol to propene, 374–5
possible mechanistic pathway for hydrogenolysis over Fe-Mo supported catalyst, 375
selective hydrogenolysis over Fe-Mo catalysts supported over activated carbon, 374
oxidation, 377
purification, 367
raw material for chemical industry, 372–9
glycerol oxidation, 377
other transformations, 378–9
transformation
epicerol process, 378
hydrogenolysis, 176–7
main reactions involved in upgrading glycerol, 175
oxidation, 176
production of glycerol carbonate from carbon dioxide, 379
three different procedures for synthesis of glycerol carbonate, 379
glycerol byproduct-based biorefineries
applications of glycerol in fuel sector, 367–72
biotechnological pathway of ethanol production from glycerol, 368
complete combustion, 367
esterification of glycerol with acetic anhydride, 371
free radical resonance structures showing electron delocalisation, 370
oxidation stability of soybean biodiesel with furfural/glycerol acetals, 371
production of solketal acetate, 372
reaction of glycerol with acetone and formaldehyde in presence of acid catalysts, 369
reaction of glycerol with anisaldehyde, 370
reaction of glycerol with ethanol in presence of acid catalysts, 369
developments, 364–81
composition and purification of glycerol produced from biodiesel, 365–7
future trends, 379–81
glycerol as raw material for chemical industry, 372–9
transesterification of triglycerides to produce fatty acid methyl esters and glycerol, 365
carboxylation, 178
dehydration, 177–8
steps of glycerol to acrolein, 177
glycerophospholipids (GPLs), 602–3
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), 597
grass-based biorefineries
developments, 335–55
field to biorefinery and impact of herbage chemical composition, 340–7
green biorefinery products, 347–55
overview, 336–9
GRASSA green biorefinery research project, 349
grassland
composition, 336–7
management, 343–5
productivity and potential availability, 339
role and importance in Europe, 337–8
green biorefinery, 336
press-cake fraction, 352–4
potential applications for direct usage of separated press-cake fraction, 353
products, 347–55
energy products, 354–5
press-juice fraction, 347–52
green chemistry, 3–6
changes, 7–9
future trends, 28
petro- to bio-refineries, 10–13
principles, 4
product substitution, 9–10
product life cycle, 10
green juice, 348–51
green plant chemical composition, 340–3
cell contents, 341
cell walls, 340–1
schematic representation of changes of grass with advancing maturity, 341
lipids, 343
non-structural carbohydrates, 342
..................Content has been hidden....................
You can't read the all page of ebook, please click here login for view all page.