UNIT VI

Social Issues and the Environment

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the chapter, students will be able to:

• Define social issues and their impact on the environment.
• Explain the processes needed to transit from unsustainable to sustainable development.
• Describe urban problems related to energy.
• Define water conservation and describe methods such as rain water harvesting and watershed management.
• Explain resettlement and rehabilitation of people and outline the accompanying problems and concerns, with case studies.
• Define environmental ethics, and explain the issues and possible solutions.
• Define climatic changes, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion, nuclear accidents and holocausts.
• Extrapolate on these terms with appropriate case studies.
• Explain wasteland reclamation.
• Define consumerism and waste products.
• Describe the issues involved in the enforcement of environmental legislation.
• Explain the need and importance of public awareness.
• Outline and explain the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, Wildlife Protection Act, and Forest Conservation Act.

6.1 Elementary Idea on Sustainable Development

It has already been discussed in the previous chapters that the advancement of human civilization from the hunter gatherer to modern industrial society through agriculture has resulted in the overuse and abuse of natural resources. Besides air and water pollution, the many consequences of this abuse include the depletion of the earth’s protective ozone layer, global warming due to increase in carbon dioxide content by burning of fossil fuels, the Greenhouse effect, acid rain, decrease in forest cover, soil erosion, the increasing rate of extinction of species and the deposit of toxic and nuclear waste in vulnerable areas of the earth. This overuse and abuse of natural resources threatens to lead the world into an era of famine. It has already started in Ethiopia.

Our present behaviour with the environment is no longer life-supporting. To make our relationship with the environment sustainable, we have to take care of it by meeting our needs and aspirations of the present without compromising those of the future.

6.1.1 Concept of Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development has been defined by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) ‘as a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.’ Thus development should not endanger the natural systems that support life on earth. Rather it should provide a framework for the integration of environmental policies and developmental strategies which can be implemented from the grassroots at home to the international level.

There are two schools of thought regarding our attitude towards Mother Nature: Frontier Mentality or the Throwaway Society and the Sustainable Society.

Frontier Mentality

The Frontier Mentality is a human-centred view mostly believed by economists and technocrats. According to this group, the continuation of the present trend of economic growth and technological advancement will make the earth a less crowded and less polluted place. Most of the people will be rich in both physical and material health with greater longevity. This concept is based on the following ideas:

1. The world has an unlimited supply of resources for human use.
2. Humans are apart from nature.
3. Nature is something to overcome.
4. Technology will advance with these ideas but only at the cost of our natural resources which are very limited.

Sustainable Development

The other group, which consists mainly of environmentalists and conservationists, believes in Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy: ‘Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need but not any man’s greed.’ According to environmentalists and conservationists, the continuation of the present trend will make the world both more populated and polluted. The rich will be richer and the poor will be poorer. This will lead to greater political and economical instability increasing the threat of nuclear war and also an ecological crisis. In order to prevent an ecological crisis and for a new sustainable society, the strategies to be followed are:

1. Conservation and reduction of excessive use of resources.
2. Recycling and reuse of materials.
3. More use of renewable resources (solar energy) than non-renewable resources (oil, coal) for energy.

Sustainable development is defined as the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. It believes in equality between countries and continents, gender, age, race and class. Sustainable development maintains a balance between social and economic development along with protection of the environment. It strengthens the interdependence of human needs and environmental requirements.

In the current strategy of economic development, the natural resources of the world are being used up at a much faster rate without any consideration for our future generation and the environmental degradation being caused.

This type of developmental strategy is simply unsustainable for the long term development of the world. At the Rio de Janeiro conference in 1992, several documents were created for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). These documents conclusively pointed out to the need to care for the earth as the environment was closely connected to development.

In the sustainable development strategy each activity that is expected to bring about economic growth must consider its environmental impact through a scientific Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Thus it is consistent with long-term development and growth.

For example, large dams, highways and the mining industry are all essential for our social and economic development. At the same time, this developmental work means the use of natural resources, loss of forest cover, depletion of biodiversity and increase in pollution. Thus, for every project, according to the sustainable development strategy, a scientific EIA is done. The economic benefit of a project is weighed against the possible environmental costs. The government has also made it compulsory to publish the summary of the EIA report and conduct a public hearing. All responsible citizens should read, evaluate and respond to such public hearings and make comments on the matter so that our environment is not degraded further. For the sustainable development of the world we have to think globally but act locally.

6.2 Urban Problems Related to Energy

Energy is one of the major pillars of economic development of the society. Economic growth along with a growing population will obviously consume a lot of energy.

Houses in urban areas are now made of more heat sensitive materials such as metals (iron, steel and aluminium) glass and concrete instead of heat insensitive substances such as wood and brick. To make these houses comfortable, we use air conditioners or room heaters run by electricity. High rise buildings need energy to operate lifts and electrical energy for lighting. Most urban people use their individual transport rather than a public one. Similarly, each and every step in an urban centre needs energy in some form or the other. To meet the enormous energy needs and for long term sustainability we should be more specific about the most efficient and cost-effective manner of energy use.

This can be achieved through the use of more renewable energy resources than non-renewable energy resources in addition to steps such as:

1. Urban planning for more efficient energy utilization.
2. Change of lifestyle to increase community involvement, which means using car pools.
3. In India, the importance of the development of renewable energy sources as an alternative to fossil fuels for a sustainable energy base has been recognized since 1970. Since then, considerable effort has gone into the development, trial and introduction of a variety of non-conventional energy technologies in the industry and for domestic use.

The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India is involved in the implementation of these programmes for the development, demonstration and utilization of renewable energy-based technologies such as solar and thermal, and green technologies such as:

1. Solar photovoltaic.
2. Wind power generation and water pumping.
3. Solar power.
4. Geothermal energy.
5. Energy recovery from municipal and industrial waste.
6. Chemical source of energy.
7. Fuel cell.
8. Alternative fuel for transportation.
9. Biomass combustion.
10. Hydroelectricity.

Today, India is in a position to solve its own energy crisis and offer these green technologies to other developing countries too.

Efforts are being made to meet the water crisis by building dams, reservoirs and digging wells to conserve water.

6.3 Water Conservation

In ancient days women used water economically as they had to cart it for their household from long distances and with much hardship. The used water was fed to the kitchen garden and not disposed off. Water was stored in small tanks called talaabs or jheels for domestic and agricultural use.

Over the years, with increase in population, the demand for more food crop and water has also increased. At the same time, growing industrialization and demand for more agricultural land has led to deforestation. But with deforestation, the surface run-off increases and the ground water table thus drops as water cannot percolate into the ground with no vegetation. The perennial rivers are also becoming seasonal due to the lack of forest cover. With the advancement of science and technology, ground water is also constantly withdrawn to meet the water demand. Hence, the water table is continuously receding. Now it is time we recharge the ground water table for our own sustenance. Efforts in this direction are made by rain water harvesting and watershed management techniques. Emphasis should also be laid on the conservation of water by employing modified techniques such as using the drip-irrigation method to water the plants near their roots in agricultural fields rather than the traditional method. Proper pipes should be used and leakages should be checked periodically. Water should be used economically and judiciously. This can be easily achieved, by using water from a bucket rather than using it directly from the tap and also utilizing used water (water used after washing vegetables, cereals and clothes) for the kitchen garden, cleaning floors and also by collecting rain water in buckets during the rainy season.

The surface water bodies are also responsible for recharging the ground water table of the area. Thus, the need of the hour is to recharge the aquifers, thereby recharging surface water bodies and hence, increasing the water table. We can also enrich the environment by maintaining some ground covered with vegetation, around our house. This will allow for easy percolation of rain water.

The sustainable use of rain water can only lower the demand for ground water. It can also augment local water supply through the recharge route. Ground water is a dependable source of fresh water. But, its continuous consumption has resulted in the drastic lowering of the water table. The result is the drying up of surface water bodies such as tanks, wells and ponds.

6.3.1 Rain Water Harvesting

Rain water harvesting is an age old method of collecting rain water on the roof tops and then using it directly or storing it for use when the rainy season is over. This method is widely practiced particularly in dry areas all over the world.

Extensive rain water harvesting apparatus existed in Palestine and Greece about 4,000 years ago. In ancient Rome, every house was built with its own cistern and paved courtyards for harvesting rain water. The farmers of Baluchistan and Kutch were also storing rain water in specially built irrigation dams to be used in farming.

In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads, footpaths and well-concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease in natural forest cover, increase in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth; very little open ground is left for water to soak in and thereby increase the ground water table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is extremely essential. It is done through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected at the roof top or in an open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the aquifier.

Several techniques are available for efficient rain water harvesting. Traditionally, rain water is stored in open storage bodies such as lakes, ponds and tanks. It is still practiced in villages. In rural areas the harvested rain water is stored in underground tanks. Underground storage tanks have an additional advantage over surface water storage tanks as there is no loss of water through evaporation.

Rain Water Harvesting Techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:

1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use.
2. Recharge of ground water.

Storage of rain water on the surface for future use is a very old practice. Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose are:

1. Pits: For recharging a shallow aquifer, recharge pits are constructed. These are one to two metre wide and three metre deep and backfilled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand to aid filtration before percolation to the ground.
2. Trenches: About 0.5 to one metre wide, one to 1.5 metre deep and up to 20 metre long trenches are constructed where a permeable stream is available at a shallow depth. The trench is also backfilled with filter material just as it is done in the case of pits.
3. Dug Wells: Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structures. The excess water should be allowed to pass through a filter bed before putting it into the well.
4. Hand Pumps: Existing hand pumps may also be used as recharge structures for aquifers. The water should pass through the fitter media before percolation.
5. Recharge Shaft: For recharging shallow aquifers located near a clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to three metres diameter and 10 to 15 metres deep are constructed and backfilled with boulders, gravels and coarse sand.
6. Lateral Shafts with Bore Wells: A similar technique is used to recharge upper as well as deeper aquifer levels.
7. Spreading Technique: If the permeable strata starts from the top, then water is allowed to spread in streams/nullahs, making check dams, nullah bunds, cement plugs or in a percolation pond.

In addition to these, in urban areas roof top and road top collection of rain water is also used to recharge aquifers.

In India, all the traditional houses, forts and palaces have a roof top rain water harvesting system. The collected rain water from the roof top is stored in underground tanks. In the hilly areas of North Bengal (Darjeeling), all the houses have a roof top rain water harvesting system. They use the collected rain water immediately or store it for a very short period. They do not have an underground storage system. These days, the Central Ground Water Board along with the civic authorities is encouraging artificial recharging of ground water through rain water harvesting. Laws are being framed to make the rain water harvesting system compulsory in all the newly-constructed buildings.

 

 

6.3.2 Watershed Management

A watershed is a geographic unit (a piece of land) that collects, stores, and releases water. Collected water comes from rain, snow and fog. This water is stored in lakes, ponds, sub-surface soil and geological formations. The stored water is then released through rivers, streams and ground water flow. Thus, a watershed can be described as a land from where water drains into a particular stream, river, lake, wetland, estuary and even the ocean. Watershed is a natural system and all lands (and all humans, wildlife and activity on that land) are part of one or other watershed. Being a natural system, watersheds provide substantial benefits to people and the neighbourhood when they are kept in good condition. But individual or collective action directly affects it.

Depletion in the ground water table, drying of small streams after the monsoons, floods, and the spread of desertification are some of the consequences of an affected watershed. The watershed management programme was started in India in 1999 to control these adverse effects. It provides scientifically-based education to maintain the viable natural resource management of agriculture production while conserving, protecting and restoring watersheds to secure water both in quality and quantity for drinking, agriculture and sanitation.

The method includes mapping of the watershed area, construction of a series of long trenches and mounds along hill contours to hold rain water and allowing it to percolate into the ground.

Plantation of trees and grass is done to enhance seeping of water to the ground and to prevent water contamination, torrents and landslides. In this way, the ground water storage gets fully recharged. The next step is to make nullah plugs and check dams and streams to hold back large amounts of water and prevent it from rushing down the hillside. In this way, not only is an underground aquifer filled up but also water bodies such as streams and rivers flow for the whole year. The main benefits of watershed management can be listed as follows:

1. It recharges the ground water, potentially reducing water storage during dry spells.
2. It reduces severity of floods downstream by retaining water and releasing it during the dry periods.
3. It protects stream banks and shore lines from erosion.
4. It improves water quality by breaking down, removing, using and retaining nutrients, organic waste and sediments carried to the wetlands with run-off from the watershed.
5. It provides food and other products such as commercial fish and shell fish for human use.
6. It provides fish and wildlife, including numerous rare and endangered species, food, habitat, breeding grounds and resting areas.
7. It increases opportunities for recreation, bird watching, photography and outdoor education.

6.4 Wasteland Reclamation

Wasteland reclamation is the process of turning barren, sterile wasteland into something that is fertile and suitable for habitation and cultivation. India has shown an alarming rate of decline in the man-land ratio from 1.25 hectare per capita in 1921 to 0.48 hectare per capita in 1986. The formation of wasteland is nothing but the result of increasing overuse and abuse of our land resource.

Wasteland land can be classified as:

1. Barren and uncultivable land.
2. Fallow land.
3. Fallow and cultivable wasteland.

Apart from these, we also have saline and alkaline land and water eroded wasteland. All types of wastelands should be reclaimed for productive use for:

1. Meeting the constant demand for agricultural land for our ever growing population.
2. Afforestation to maintain ecological balance.
3. Protection of natural resources.

However, such reuse depends on the type of wastelands. By reducing the salt content of soil through leaching and flushing and using gypsum, urea, potash and compost before planting, crops can convert fallow and cultivable wasteland into a usable one.

Agro forestry is used in fallow lands for multiple use of trees, agricultural crops or livestock management. This is done by planting trees and cultivating crops in between or under trees to form an integrated system of biological production within a specified area.

In India, the National Wasteland Development Board was established in 1985 to formulate action plans to arrest further land degradation. In 1992, the Board was transferred under the Ministry of Rural Development with the formation of a new department of Wasteland Development.

Five districts in the country (under the state ministry) — Sundargarh (Orissa), Purulia (West Bengal), Almora (Uttar Pradesh) Bellary (Karnataka) and Durgapur (Rajasthan) — have been chosen for the implementation of the plan for reforestation and reclamation of degraded lands by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Moreover, detailed maps of 146 districts, including every state of India had been prepared for identification of wastelands followed by action plans for their reclamation.

 

 

6.5 Resettlement and Rehabilitation

Across the globe nearly 10 million people per annum are affected by forced displacement due to infrastructural projects such as dams, mines, roads, industries and power plants. They lose their shelter and livelihood and some of them die due to hunger and poverty. In India, planned development in growth sectors such as power, mining, heavy industry and irrigation, immediately after Independence had already displaced about 30 to 50 million persons. Only about 25 per cent of this number was resettled.

Uprooting people is a serious issue. The rights of the tribal people are also threatened with displacement. The developmental projects come into existence after a fairly long period of planning and awareness of displacement caused by such projects. Despite awareness about issues relating to the resettlement and rehabilitation of the displaced persons, very little attention is paid to them. Rather these projects focus on the economic efficiency and not on the person to be displaced from their land, livelihood and their socio-cultural life. Under the new economic policy, expecting large scale displacement, the Committee of Secretaries, Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment drafted the Land Acquisition Bill in 1998 for the rehabilitation of displaced persons. According to this Bill, people eligible for rehabilitation should apply to claim it. However, following a number of revisions, finally a National Policy of Resettlement and Rehabilitation on Project-Affected Families 2003 was gazetted on February 17, 2004 by the Ministry of Rural Development. In spite of this, resettlement and rehabilitation for development work in India is not adequate, uniform and consistent. Resettlement and rehabilitation, as per the Indian Constitution, is the responsibility of the individual states concerned. But only three states — Karnataka, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh have separate laws and only two public sector undertakings, the National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and Coal India Ltd have separate policies for rehabilitation. No development work can be justified if a section of the society is pampered. Often, rehabilitation benefits are also discriminating. For example, a person displaced by canal or irrigation work gets lesser benefits than those affected by the construction of a dam.

Environmental Ethics

Ethics deal with moral duty and obligations and gives rise to a set of values, which in turn are used to judge the appropriateness of a particular conduct or behaviour. These are the basic principles by which a society should be guided in its decision making and activities. The entire world is laying greater emphasis on responsibilities to the environment. The basis of ethics is truth, honesty, justice, trustworthiness, competence and accountability.

Consciousness of ecological consequences has led the society to adopt environmental ethics. The new environmental ethics give as much importance to revitalising growth as they do to sustainability, that is, to developmental processes that last. Sustainability requires at least a constant stock of natural capital constructed as the set of all environmental assets. It consists of:

1. Justice in respect of the socially disadvantaged.
2. Justice to future generations.
3. Justice to nature.
4. Aversion to risk arising from our ignorance about the nature of the interaction between the environment, economy and society and the social and economic damage arising from low margins of resilience to external ‘stock’.

Some of the ethical guidelines on environmental protection are enlisted below:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
4. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
5. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
6. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
7. Become involved in the environmental movement and bring about a change in the attitudes and acts towards nature of people known to you.
8. Think of the global cause and act for local protection.
9. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

6.6 Air Pollution and the Biosphere

Biosphere denotes the domain of living organisms and their interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere collectively known as the environment.

 

 

To a great extent, atmospheric pollutants are mainly present in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Depending on the extent of air pollution, the atmosphere can be divided into three layers. The first layer, up to 100 metres from the ground is highly polluted, in general and in urban and industrial areas, in particular. A part of the pollutants present in this layer are absorbed by the vegetation, water surface and buildings. The next layer 100–2,000 metres high, contains lesser amount of pollutants as turbulent air currents, drizzle, rain and fog divert and dilute the concentration of pollutants there. The third layer containing large amounts of water vapour and clouds extend up to the troposphere. Here, cloud water droplets dissolve some pollutants and bring them back to the earth as rain. The pollutants present in the stratosphere due to volcanic eruptions, nuclear explosions and products of photochemical reactions, stay there for a long time due to the lesser movement of air currents in the stratosphere.

Large quantities of particulates and smoke from fossil fuels, particularly over urban and industrial areas, increase atmospheric turbidity and reduce visibility. These particulates absorb and reflect incident solar radiation, which causes a 20 per cent decrease in solar flux in the urban areas compared to rural areas. Particulates also participate in cloud formation resulting in smog over urban areas, which leads to erosion and corrosion of metals and materials, as well as damages plants.

6.6.1 Climate Changes

Global warming is now one of the most important environmental issues. Our every day activities are leading to changes in the earth’s atmosphere that significantly alter the planet’s heat and radiation balance and warmer climate. International efforts to address this problem have been on since the 1980s. The Earth Summit in 1992 was an important launching point.

The knowledge that CO₂ in the atmosphere was a Greenhouse gas dates back to the 19^th century. Not only CO_2, but other Greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour too help to retain the incoming heat energy from the sun, thereby increasing the earth’s surface temperature. However, CO₂ is the most important Greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities ranging from burning any kind of fuel containing carbon to human respiration. The concentration of CO₂ in the earth’s atmosphere was 280 ppmv and 358 ppmv (parts per million by volume) in 1750 and 1994, respectively and is steadily increasing at a rate of 1.5 ppmv per year. The concentration of other Greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide has also been rising at a fairly rapid rate. Earth has warmed an average 0.3 to 0.6°C since the late 19^th century and temperatures would rise by 1 to 3.5°C by the year 2100 and global mean sea levels by about 15 to 95 cm. It is likely that changes of this magnitude and rapidity could pose severe problems for many natural and man-made ecosystems as well as important economic sectors such as agriculture and water resources. These changes also threaten extinction of habitation in many low-lying areas.

Most of the ill-effects of climate change are linked to extreme weather events such as hot and cold spells of temperature or wet or dry spells of rainfall or cyclones or floods. Prediction of nature and distribution of such events in a changed climate may not be accurate also resulting in the intensification of the ill-effects. Global warming has often been described as one of the most serious environmental problems ever to confront humanity. Its effect covers the entire globe over a time scale of decades or centuries and is inextricably linked with economic development of the nations. Since Greenhouse gases are generated by burning fossil fuel in power plants, factories and automobiles, it is not easy to reduce emissions. Virtually every facet of our life is intimately tied to the consumption of energy and any serious attempt to cut emissions will have clear and immediate consequences.

To respond to climatic changes, negotiations began in 1991 under the United Nations, so as to formulate an international treaty on global climate protection. This was finalized at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The convention has a few binding requirements and calls for nations to limit carbon dioxide and other Greenhouse emissions by addressing anthropogenic emissions by some and removal through sinks of Greenhouse gases. It does not set out specific targets or time frames for reducing emissions.

The effect was found inadequate and the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on climate change decided in December, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan to commit specific, legally-binding emission-reduction targets for six Greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro-fluorocarbons, perfluorinated compounds and sulphur hexafluoride by industrialized nations. The protocol was opened for signature on March 16, 1998. Developing countries have since then been arguing that developed countries which are mainly responsible for the present and past atmospheric changes should bear the financial responsibilities of change.

The mechanisms suggested to improve the Kyoto Protocol include IT, CDM and ETS. They are explained below:

IT:  It is a voluntary project between a developed and developing country to reduce Greenhouse gas emission or increase carbon sequestration through afforestation.

CDM:  It is IT in a new form — Greenhouse gas reduction projects between Annexure-B (developed) and non Annexure-B (developing) countries that result in Certified Emission Reductions (CERS).

ETS:  Emission Trading Scheme is a market-based policy instrument that allows the Greenhouse producing corporate to reduce its emissions at a minimum cost.

For India, climate change issues have several ramifications.

First, India does not have current obligations to reduce emissions. But in the future there will be international pressure on India for necessitating correct emission inventories in reduction measures.

Second, we need to develop our emission target basis of norm and measurement and reliable measurement devices.

Third, we need to develop our disaster mitigation plan since global intervention; global warming, climate change and extreme meteorological events are not ruled out.

Greenhouse Effect of Global Warming

The Greenhouse effect is the phenomenon of the progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to the excessive presence of some gases such as carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere.

The temperature of the earth’s surface is due to exchange of energy in the form of radiation between the surface and atmosphere and of physical characteristics of the earth’s surface. Among all the constituents of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide and water vapour strongly absorb infrared radiation (14,000 to 25,000 mm) and effectively block a large fraction of the earth’s emitted radiation. The radiation thus absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour is partly re-emitted to the earth’s surface. As a result, the temperature of the earth’s surface continues to increase.

The increase in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere raises the heat (temperature) in the earth’s surface or the Greenhouse effect. On the other hand, the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere directly depends on deforestation and burning of fossil fuels.

A large amount of photosynthesis occurs in forests and they also maintain a vast amount of readily oxidisable stock of carbon as wood and humus. In other words, forests help to maintain the atmospheric balance of carbon dioxide.

Continuous increase in burning of fossil fuels increases the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere. It has been estimated that about 50 per cent content of atmospheric carbon dioxide is from combustion of fossil fuel. The ocean also contains a large amount of dissolved carbon dioxide as bicarbonates.

Excluding carbon dioxide, other gases such as methane, chlorofluoro carbon and ozone released from industries, also play an important role in the temperature regulation process. Hence, these gases are known as Greenhouse gases. Just like the glass panes of a greenhouse they allow most of the solar radiation to enter the earth’s surface but prevent some of the re-radiated infrared or heat to escape into space. As a result, temperature on the earth goes on increasing.

 

 

Consequences of the Greenhouse Effect: Increase in surface temperature due to increase in the concentration of Greenhouse gases will increase the evaporation of surface water thereby raising the temperature further.

The Greenhouse effect will increase the surface temperature at the rate of 2–3°C for doubling the carbon dioxide content. Increase in surface temperature even by 1⁰C will adversely effect the world food production by shifting the wheat-growing zone from the northern latitude (Canada and Russia) to the poles. It will also reduce the biological productivity of the ocean which will in turn reduce the nutrient transportation from the bottom to the surface by vertical circulation.

The Greenhouse effect will raise the temperature at the poles resulting in partial melting of glaciers and ice caps. This will raise the water level by as much as two metres in the ocean. This rise in sea level will decrease the ice-gap of Greenland and will threaten the coastal countries. It will submerge densely populated places like Bangladesh, Shanghai and Maldives and coastal cities in India like Chennai and Goa may face the same fate.

An increase in Greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide, will result in increasing the number of cyclones and hurricanes and the melting of snow in the high mountains to cause floods.

An increase in the percentage of atmospheric carbon dioxide content will adversely affect the earth by changing its climate. At present, carbon dioxide controls the global temperature to life, sustained at 15°C by trapping the heat radiation. It is true that without carbon dioxide our earth will be as cold as the moon but if its quantity goes on increasing then the day is not too far when the surface temperature of the earth will be as high as 450°C.

Control Measures: Increasing global warming due to an increase in the Greenhouse effect can be controlled by adopting the following measures:

1. Use of solar energy and biogas instead of fossil fuels on a large scale.
2. By putting a check on population explosion mainly in densely populated countries, which will help in decreasing the quantity of CO₂ and chloro fluoro carbons released.
3. Afforestation programme should be followed on a massive scale and deforestation should be banned so as to maintain forests in at least in one-third of the geographical area, as forests regulate the balance in atmospheric CO₂.

By attaching anti-pollution devices such as catalytic converters and using unleaded petrol, emission of Greenhouse gases from automobiles can be reduced.

Acid Rain

The literal meaning of acid rain is the presence of excessive acid in rain water. The term was first coined by Robert Angus in 1872. It is one of the side effects of air pollution. The acidification of the atmosphere is mainly due to the presence of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the air. These oxides are produced mainly by human activities like the burning of fossil fuel, biomass consumption, emission from industries and automobile exhaust. A small amount of these pollutants is already present in the atmosphere due to volcanic emissions and swamps. Most industries build tall chimneys to avoid air pollution in their vicinity. Chimney smoke and gaseous discharge are carried by air currents to far away places. This discharge contains particulates such as sulphur and nitrogen that burn in atmospheric oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. As these two oxides are highly soluble in water they produce soluble sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

The longer these oxides stay in the air, the more likely they are to be oxidized to different oxides and ultimately to acids.

 

 

In case of nitrogen

 

 

All rainfall is slightly acidic (having a pH of about 5.6) because rain water reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide to produce carbonic acid. Hence, rain with a pH below 5.6 is called acid rain.

 

 

 

These acids can get deposited in wet or dry form. Acid rain, snow, fog, frost, dew are different forms of deposition. In dry form, these acids may get deposited on the earth as dust. However, deposition of these acids as rain is more common and the pH of this rain water can be as low as 2.0.

The Effects of Acid Rain

1. Acid rain increases the acidity of the soil and thereby leaches out all its nutrients and reduces agricultural productivity.

   The industrial emissions of northern USA have already destroyed the crops and forests of North America, Europe and Canada by acid rain precipitation. In West Germany, about 10 per cent of the forests died and about 18 million acres of forests are severely damaged.

2. Acid rain also affects the aquatic ecosystem. It increases the acidity of lakes, ponds and other water bodies. As a result, fish and other aquatic population have decreased markedly. A decrease in the variety of species in the food chain has also been noticed. About 237 lakes in Adirondack have a pH below 5.0. They have become graveyards for fish and other aquatic life and disrupt the ecological balance.
3. Acid rain causes extensive damage to buildings, marble sculptures, limestone, slate and mortar in the following way:

    

   

    

   As a result, these materials become pitted and mechanically weak. This is termed as stone cancer. The Taj Mahal at Agra is also attacked by stone cancer by the pollutants (SOx) released from the Mathura Refinery. Many statues and sculptures in Greece and Italy have been affected by acid rain.

   Acid rain has been a great threat to the environment in Britain, as it mostly experiences acidic snowfall, which, on melting, will destroy the whole of Britain. Hence, it can be suitably termed as a pollution time bomb.

4. Excessive acid rain will affect the nervous, respiratory and digestive systems of human-beings making a person a neurological patient.

   Acid rain moves downwards from the source and spreads widely. Even the gaseous pollutants produced in one country are capable of producing severe acid rain problems in other countries. In short, acid rain is one of the most serious threats to the environment and it has both macro as well as micro biological effects on animals and plants.

Steps to Prevent Acid Precipitation: Earlier, farmers used to add lime to the fields to maintain the pH of the soil. New York has been adding lime to lakes and ponds since 1959. Recently, the United States limed the Adirondack lakes to prevent eradication of trout fish. But it is not a cost-effective method, as it requires nearly US$ 40 per acre with volunteers and vehicular assistance. If aeroplanes and helicopters are used, the cost rises to US$ 200 per acre. So, on a large scale, this type of air pollution is reduced by reducing the acid-forming emissions. These days, scrubbers are installed in coal-fired power plants and other industries to scrub acidic air pollutants and reduce their emission in the atmosphere.

Ozone Layer Depletion (Ozone Hole)

Ozone is a pale blue gas. It is continuously being produced and destroyed. The stratospheric pool of ozone is commonly known as ozonosphere or the ozone umbrella.

Although the presence of ozone in smog impairs vision and breathing but its presence in the ozonosphere filters out the sun’s harmful radiation like ultraviolet rays and helps to sustain life on earth. In the absence of this protective umbrella of the ozone layer, all the ultraviolet rays of the sun will enter the earth’s atmosphere and the biological furnace of the biosphere will change into the blast furnace.

Naturally, ozone is formed in the atmosphere through a photochemical reaction. Oxygen present in the lower mesosphere absorbs the sun’s radiation to produce two oxygen atoms, one in the ground state and the other at the excited state, respectively.

 

 

Excited oxygen atom (O*) being unstable, cannot stay in the thin upper atmosphere for a long period. It is deactivated by collision with another oxygen molecule, which produces a single molecular oxygen.

 

 

Finally, the ground state oxygen atom combines with the oxygen molecule to form ozone in the excited state.

 

 

The ozone formed in the excited state is stabilized in a third body by various ways.

 

 

M can be O₂ or nitrogen or any other inert molecule which removes excess energy of recombination that can cause decomposition of ozone.

However, solar radiation (210–290 mm) can cause decomposition of ozone to molecular oxygen but it reforms again resulting in no net loss of ozone.

 

 

Ozone can also get dissociated by collision with a free oxygen atom.

 

 

This dynamic equilibrium of ozone is naturally maintained in the ozonosphere. All these reactions together are known as the Chapman Reaction. As the height increases, the rate of dissociation of the O₃ molecule increases and the rate of formation of the same decreases. The concentration of ozone is a balance between these competing reactions.

During the past 15 years, this protective layer of ozone has reduced over the South Pole due to some natural and man-made activities. It has been estimated that one per cent depletion in ozone concentration will lead to a six per cent increase in skin cancer ailments. A study by scientists of the British Antarctic Survey revealed that a decrease in ozone concentration by more than 40 per cent was found over Antarctica. However, calculations at Antarctica stations indicated that depletion in the ozone layer over Antarctica is between 50 per cent and 90 per cent at some places.

The increase in air traffic of supersonic aircrafts that fly at the ozonosphere altitude for their required low air resistance, releases a large amount of nitrogen oxides. Atmospheric nuclear explosions also emit a significant amount of oxides of nitrogen which directly enter the atmosphere. The cumulative effect of increase in nitrogen oxides increases the rate of oxygen decomposition which in turn reduces the ozone layer as follows:

 

 

Chloro fluoro carbons (CFCs), fluorochloro methane (Freons), difluoro dichloro methane (CF₂Cl₂) and fluoro chloroform (CFCl₃) are used as coolants in refrigerators, air conditioners and propellants in pressurized aerosol cans since the 1930s with technological advancements. They found increasing applications until the 1980s when chloro fluoro carbons were found responsible for ozone layer depletion. They release chlorine by ultraviolet radiation in the atmosphere. Estimate shows that one molecule of chlorine from chloro fluoro carbons can destroy one lakh ozone molecules when they diffuse to the stratospheric level and 6.5 per cent of the total ozone layer depletion is reported to be due to chlorine alone.

 

 

Depletion of atmospheric ozone level reduces the screening effect of the sun’s lethal radiation entering the earth’s biosphere. An increase in ultraviolet rays will not only adversely affect aquatic organisms but will also reduce global food production. Excess ultraviolet rays of the sun will cause skin cancer, retardation in tissue growth, albumin coagulation and ecological disturbances.

Control Measure: Ozone layer depletion or ozone hole formation is serious for the existence of mankind. The control measures will be through mass awareness. Statutory regulations on the restricted use of CFCs and advanced research to plug the ozone holes that have already been formed.

Smog or Smoke-Fog

Smog, an odd combination of smoke and fog is prevalent in London. It is commonly known as sulphurous smog or London smog formed by the presence of sulphur dioxide. This smog affected London city badly for several centuries after the introduction of coal as fuel and hence the name. The mixture of components is chemically reducing in nature so they the smog is also called reducing smog. It occurs mainly in the early morning hours of the winter season. During this period, the relative humidity is high and also air near the ground is cool by conduction from cooled surfaces (particularly on a clear night), while higher up in the troposphere the air is not that cool. In the absence of wind, the warm air lies over cooler air and temperature inversion takes place. Under this particular atmospheric status, the following chemical reactions take place leading to the formation of sulphurous (London) smog.

 

 

In the presence of sunlight and particulate matter SO₂ so formed gets oxidized to SO₃ as follows:

 

 

The chemical reaction in this type of smog is not photochemical in nature. London smog causes throat irritation and difficulty in breathing.

The other type of smog is due to the presence of oxides of nitrogen (NO₂) in the atmosphere which mainly forms as a result of photochemical reactions of automobile exhaust. It is called photochemical smog or Los Angeles smog. The most severe smog of this type was caused in Los Angeles in 1944 and hence the name. photochemical smog occurs in warm sunny days (sunlight is essential to carry out photochemical reaction) both in summer and winter when the sky is clear and humidity is low. A subsidence inversion is a perfect condition for formation of photochemical smog. Chemically, photochemical smog is formed as follows:

1. Reactive hydrocarbons (RCH₂ having C=C) present in automobile exhaust react with O₃ of troposphere to form RCH₂*.

    

   

    

2. RCH₂* immediately reacts with O₂ and yields the free radical RCH₂O₂*.

    

   

    

3. RCH₂O₂* reacts with NO to produce NO₂ and another free radical RCH₂O*.

    

   

    

4. RCH₂O* then reacts with O₂ to yield a stable aldehyde (RCHO) and hydroperoxyl radical (HO₂*) which reacts with another molecule of NO to yield NO₂ and HO*.

    

   

    

5. HO* being extremely reactive, rapidly reacts with RCH₃(a stable hydrocarbon) and regenerates the free radical RCH₂*.

    

   

    

6. The aldehyde (RCHO) so formed reacts with HO* to form Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN) as a by-product of photochemical smog. _O

    

   

    

The majority of the harmful effects of hydrocarbon pollution result not from hydrocarbons themselves but from the photochemical reactions of the hydrocarbons. Photochemical oxidants are formed in the atmosphere where large quantities of automobile exhaust is trapped by an inversion layer of stagnant air masses and exposed to intense sunlight. Photochemical smog consists of brown hazy fumes. It irritates the eyes and lungs leading to cracking of rubber and causes extensive damage to plant life.

6.7 Nuclear Accidents and the Holocaust

If used with proper care, nuclear energy can be a boon to the human civilization or else it can be a bane for all of us. Nowadays, radio isotopes are used for detection of ulcers and treatment of cancer. X-rays are a very useful tool in medical science for the diagnosis of fractures in our body. Laser rays are used for bloodless operations in serious patients. Nuclear energy is used for the generation of electricity. The role of nuclear energy for the betterment of human civilization is endless as long as it is used within limits.

But the same nuclear energy is responsible for the atomic and hydrogen bombs used for the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in 1945. The effects of radiation from these nuclear bombs can still be seen in the form of cancer and genetic mutation in the survivors of the incidents. Excessive exposure to the same nuclear energy that is used for treatment of patients can also produce serious diseases like bone tumors, genetic damage, infant mortality or even leukemia. The Chernobyl nuclear mishap on April 28, 1986 near Kiev in USSR is also an example of a nuclear holocaust in the history of mankind.

Radiation Episodes

In spite of extreme danger of radiation pollution hazards to mankind, test explosions of nuclear weapons by developed and developing countries, explosion of two atom bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the USA during World War II, explosions at the Chernobyl power plant in the Soviet Ukraine in 1986 and other such incidents have been taking place all over the world. These accidents/incidents had resulted in radiation leakage and damage to the fragile ecosystem. Chernobyl was the first officially reported nuclear accident in USSR and the world.

The first nuclear reactor of the world was commissioned in USA in 1942 and India’s research reactor, Apsara in 1956. It is reported that there had been more than 10,000 reactor accidents in USA alone and 200 serious accidents in India. Since then, however, most of the incidents are kept secret by the respective authorities. Some of the known radiation episodes of the world are described below in brief.

6.8 Consumerism and Waste Products

Modern society has made mankind consumerist for comfort. Today, people consume more products and services and thus more resources and energies of the earth, which are fast depleting. The life cycle of the products and services has been shortened and even they have become ‘disposable’ for single use such as injection syringes, paper cups, cans, bottles, plastic cartons and condoms. Further, with a rapid increase in population, the amount of resources and energy consumed is increasing which results in a corresponding increase in waste disposal, both in quality and quantity.

Large quantities of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes generated by modern societies, mineral refuse, e-waste, biomedical waste, agriculture waste fertilizer and pesticide overuse, dead animals, human and animal excreta, increasing landfills, burning of waste and waste dumping in the rivers and oceans all pose a serious threat to environment management.

Careful and judicious utilization of resources and recovery of used material by recycling of waste are essential today. We must minimize the generation of waste at the source itself by improving the process efficiency with minimal use of resources. Reduce, reuse, recycle— the three Rs principle must be adopted by everyone to make a low waste or no waste society.

Plastic has become an indispensable part of modern life — cars, computers, baby bottles, telephone, clothing and packaging–it is used everywhere. Although plastic is non-biodegradable, its versatility in physical properties and unique formability has made plastic recyclable. Plastics can be recycled mechanically, chemically or thermally to produce new articles. In India, the Department of Science and Technology and Indian Oil Corporation are jointly working on the method of converting used plastics into petrol, diesel and LPG and expect to be India’s first plant for recovering petrol, diesel and LPG from waste plastics.

Environmental Movements

Environmental deterioration is a by-product of rapid industrialization and developmental projects. It has become so great that immediate steps for conservation and regeneration of environmental resources are urgently necessary.

Initially, the environment referred only to the physical, chemical and biological aspects. But it has changed with time to include man-made social, cultural, economic and technological aspects too. The first social awareness about environmental problems was started by an ‘elite group’ of people in the 1950s. It gathered momentum in the 1980s and 1990s through scientific and technological research and development of organizations, writing textbooks on environmental science for teaching, educating the general masses through various media like posters, slides, audio-visual media and special exhibitions. Now, the world has entered the 21^st century when all its natural renewable resources have been pushed closer to their limits. Drastic planning is the need of the hour to bring the environment back from non-sustainable to sustainable development.

NGOs

Various Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) have already been involved in educating people about environmental awareness. There are about 187 NGOs, of which 129 have been involved in environmental education and awareness, 56 in conservation of nature, 47 in pollution control, 46 in afforestation and social foresting, 28 in floral and faunal studies, 11 in rural development and 10 each in wildlife conservation and waste utilization and nine in eco-development. These NGOs work mainly at the grassroots level and also act as the ears and eyes of the Government.

1. They give necessary aid and advice to the government
2. They educate people and create general awareness for conservation.

In addition to the efforts of the Government in preventing and controlling environmental pollution, these NGOs play a significant role in environmental protection.

One of the oldest cases of environmental pollution is between the Society for the Protection of the Silent Valley vs Union of India in the Kerala High Court for seeking a writ for banning the proposed hydroelectric project at the Silent Valley. The construction of the project could have endangered the famous tropical evergreen forest and its diverse flora and fauna and would have thereby adversely affected the climate condition as well.

Although the court’s verdict was against the society, ultimately the project was abandoned by the timely intervention of the then Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi. However, this not only saved the environment but also aroused active awareness about ecological imbalance amongst people.

Subsequently, the Court responded positively to a number of PILs on environmental issues. The PIL by the Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendras, Dehradun against the Uttar Pradesh government for environmental degradation due to limestone mining in the sub-Himalayan terrain led to the court ordering the closure of half the mines and an award of Rs 10,000 towards the cost to be paid to voluntary organizations by the government. Other examples of PIL cases are: the Sriram Fertilizer Factory case, Oleum Leak case, Union Carbide case, and the Rajgangpur cement factory case all of which received a positive response.

The NGOs have also worked against so called developmental projects that appeared to have threatened the local inhabitants with ecological imbalance.

Appiko Movement

Dating back to 1983, this movement was begun in protest against the forest department’s felling of trees in Salkane Forest in Sirsi district in Karnataka. Appiko means, to hug. Volunteers do not put a total ban on tree felling; rather they put some rules and regulations on the felling of trees. According to them, local people should be consulted before marking the trees for felling and there should be a total ban on tree felling within 100 metres of a water source and on a slope of 30° or above.

Kalpavriksha (KV)

The organization, Kalpavriksha, started in 1979 to oppose the destruction of Delhi’s green areas in developing workbooks for environmental studies at school levels and also conducting research on the same issue.

Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF India)

This organization acts through its 200 volunteers and 10,000-subscriber supporters for the conservation of the country’s natural heritage through support to research, field projects, education and training.

The contribution of Maneka Gandhi for the protection of the environment or the dedication of Medha Patkar in the Narmada Bachao Andolan and of Suman Sahani and Vandana Shiva for advocating development without destruction are unforgettable. Our then Prime Minister, Mrs Indira Gandhi was awarded with the International Union of Conservation of Nature for her sincere efforts for a cleaner environment.

Movement in Orissa

The NGOs and environment groups have also been very active in Orissa. The following environmental movements need special mention:

1. Orissa Krushak Mahasangha and others agitated in 1991–1992 against the introduction of intensive shrimp farming in the waters of Chilika and sought discontinuation of the proposal.
2. Gandhamardhan Yuva Parishad led a movement in Western Orissa to make the state government agree to close down the Bauxite project in the famous Gandhamardhan Hill.
3. The Orissa Environmental Society launched the movement to declare Similipal forest as a biosphere reserve. It was declared the 15^th biosphere reserve of India.
4. Southern Orissa spearheaded a movement to conserve Mahendra Giri in Eastern ghat, a rare forest of rich biodiversity in Gajapati district.
5. Orissa Environmental Consciousness Society is actively engaged in spearheading and popularising environmental education in Orissa, which started functioning from Jyoti Vihar–its present headquarters.

Constitutional Provisions

The advancement of human civilization from a hunter gatherer society to the modern technologically advanced industrial society has induced man to tamper with the natural environment for creating an economic, social and cultural environment of his choice. This has resulted in the depletion of natural resources and led to water, air and soil pollution. Technological development has generated noise pollution. The negligence in the handling, storage and transportation of different hazardous and radioactive chemicals has resulted in mass causalities. To protect ourselves, plants, animals and the environment, several laws have been enacted at the national and international levels.

The United Nations Conference on Human Environment, 1972 at Stockholm was attended by the representatives of 113 world governments to discuss this issue. At the conference it was proclaimed that, ‘The protection and improvement of human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of people and the economic development throughout the world and it is the duty of all the governments and its people to exert common effort for the preservation and improvement of human environment, for the benefit of all the people and their posterity.’

Thereafter, many countries introduced control mechanisms by amending and enacting special criminal laws to prosecute most flagrant offenders. India is the first country to impose a constitutional obligation on the state and citizens to protect and improve the environment as a primary duty. Article 48A of the Indian constitution says:

The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.

Article 51A also provides:

It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.

6.9 Laws Relating to Environment, Pollution, Forest and Wildlife

Numerous laws have been enacted at the international, national, state and municipal levels. The following national acts provide environmental legislation:

1. The Factories Act, 1948.
2. The Insecticides Act, 1968.
3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
4. The Air (Prosecution and Control of the Pollution Act, 1981.
5. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
6. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
7. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

The main provisions of some of these national acts are:

The Factory (Amendment) Act of 1987

This Act is aimed at declaring the information of hazardous processes taking place inside the factory to its workers, local residents and government officials. This rule also allows the employees to inform the Factory Inspectorate directly regarding violation of safety rules during plant operation. According to the second amendment of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1992 all these industries are covered by Water and Air Pollution Act and also by Hazardous Waste Handling Act. According to this amendment, every industry is to submit an environmental audit report to the State Pollution Control Board on or before May 15 for the financial year ending on March 31. In order to reduce the pollution burden and optimum utilization of natural resources, a comparative statement from the previous year is to be submitted.

The Insecticides Act, 1968

This is one of India’s first national environmental laws enacted in 1968 and enforced from 1971 to regulate import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticides to prevent risk to human beings and animals. Different agencies like the Central Insecticide Board, Pesticide Registration Committee, Pesticide Environment Pollution Advisory Committee, Central Insecticide Laboratory Committee were created for effective enforcement of the Act and to ban or restrict the use of pesticides.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974)

This was the first national law of India on pollution control. This act defines water pollution and determines penalties. The Water Pollution Board at the Central and State levels has been set up for the prevention and control of water pollution in all sources of water under its jurisdiction. They also determine the permissible and impermissible levels of water pollution. This act was amended in 1977 and 1978 to improve the financial condition of the state boards through implementation of a water tax for use of water by industrial and local authorities.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981

This Act regulates and controls emission from automobiles and industrial plants. The Central Board for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution is authorized to implement and enforce this act also. This body determines the standards of air quality. The Central Board is empowered to coordinate the activities of the State Boards. After consultation with the State Board, the state government may declare an area within the state as:

1. Air pollution control area.
2. Prohibit the use of any fuel other than the approved one in the area of air pollution.
3. Nobody can operate any industrial plant in air pollution control area without the consent of the State Board.

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

The India Forest Act of 1927 was amended in 1980 to prohibit the state governments from declaring any reserve forest as non-reserve without prior approval of the central authority. This amendment has restricted the efforts of the state governments to use forest land for non-forest purposes.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

This Act was enacted in 1972 to provide necessary protection against serious threats to wildlife by the expansion and advancement of agriculture, industry and urbanization. The Indian Board of Wildlife was set up in 1952 to protect the wildlife resources and prevent gene erosion. Various wildlife parks and sanctuaries were created; projects were launched to save endangered species such as lions (1972), tigers (1973), crocodiles (1974) and brown antlered deer (1981). India became a party to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1976 and started a national component of the UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (1971).

The Wildlife Protection Act, (1972), was enacted to provide protection to wild animals and birds by:

1. Constitution of wildlife advisory board in each state.
2. Regulating the hunting of wild animals and birds.
3. Specifying the procedures for declaring areas of sanctuaries and national park.
4. Regulating the possession, acquisition and trade of wild animals as well as animal products.

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

After the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984, a series of new environmental laws were enacted. Through the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, the Central Government has acquired the following powers:

1. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of pollutants from various sources and for environmental quality.
2. Restricting area in which industries operation may or may not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
3. Laying down safeguards for the prevention of accidents and remedial measures in case of accidents.
4. Procedures and protection for hazardous substance handling.
5. Issuing directions to any person, officer or authorities for closure, prohibition or regulation in electricity or water supply or any other services.

This act also empowers a person to complain to the court regarding violation of the provisions of the Act after having given a notice of 60 days to the prescribed authorities.

A violator of the Environmental Protection Act can face imprisonment up to five years and a fine of up to Rs one lakh.

Role of the Judiciary: Issues Involved in Enforcement of Environmental Legislation

Regulatory measures in the form of legislation check the degradation of the environment and lead to the enacting of laws at the national or international levels to prevent pollution. The role of the judiciary in protecting the environment lies in formulation and enforcement of effective laws to protect the environment.

The Supreme Court of India’s judgment sanctioning US$ 470 million towards compensation by the Union Carbide to the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy is an example of what the judiciary can do to protect the environment.

The Constitution of India has provisions to make environmental legislation. Many legislations have already been enacted to protect the environment. Judiciaries with their limited resources, try to enforce such laws. But the judiciary alone cannot improve the environment unless the states and citizens do their duties and obligations to protect and improve the environment.

For successful implementation of an environmental legislation, collection of relevant data, its processing and final submission to the enforcement agency has to be done honestly and effectively. Violation of any law or rule by an individual or institution has to be punished legally. Information must reach the law enforcement officials from the concerned person or people. If no cognizance is taken, the affected or interested person must file a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) for the protection of the environment. Thus, the general public must be careful of any irregular practice that is likely to have an adverse effect on our national environment.

6.10 Environmental Impact Assessment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a widely recognized study to assess environmental impacts of developmental projects. Decisions on proposed developmental projects are made based on the findings of an EIA study. An extension of an EIA could be a cost benefit analysis where the value of economic gains versus environmental losses or vice versa can be suitably compared to establish a sound basis for the choice of a particular project.

EIA is the analysis of any possible alteration of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial, caused by the project under consideration. It is the tool of environmental protection to test the compatibility of the environment before taking any decision to construct public, private or governmental projects and industries which could deteriorate the natural resource. It is anticipatory in nature and attempts to answer the following questions:

1. Are these physical/health hazards associated with the locations of the proposed projects?
2. Will these be significant disturbances on the existing community?
3. Are there potential conflicts with economic interests?
4. Will the project require major additions to the existing physical infrastructure including transport, water and housing?

It is a process of identifying likely consequences for the natural environment and man’s health and welfare, of implementing particular activities and designs to identify, predict, interpret and communicate information at a stage when their decision may materially affect those responsible for sanctioning the proposal.

Undesirable environmental effects caused by man’s deliberate and inadvertent activities can be prevented through EIAs. When EIAs are adopted, planners are bound to consider side effects of any proposal over a time frame of short, medium and long term. Possible alternatives and the proposal may be dropped or the most acceptable alternative with or without modification is accepted.

EIA Process

An EIA neither solves problems in itself nor substitutes for the formulation and implementation of appropriate policies. However, the overall process ensures that developments cause minimal environmental damage, do not unnecessarily reduce the productivity of the natural systems and do not impose unwanted costs on other development activities.

EIA consists of the following stages:

1. Identifications of goals and objectives.
2. Survey, forecast and analysis.
3. Formulation and evaluation of alternative plans.
4. Decision, implementation and monitoring.
5. Consultation and public participation.

Stage I: Identification of Goals and Objectives

Generally, environmental objectives are not comprehensive mainly due to the absence of clear environmental quality standards. However, as industries have been increasingly adopting ISO 14001 Environmental Management System, the situation has been fast changing and one must clearly identify and formulate goals and objectives of the EIA process.

Stage II: Survey, Forecast and Analysis

Requirement of data with respect to significant parameters of existing environmental conditions is to be identified by using checklists, environmental matrices and other tools. The data obtained through surveys is to be reviewed and monitored continuously. The accuracy of forecasting future environmental conditions is dependent on the quality of population and economic forecasts and other assumptions of impacting parameters. The following actions are to be taken in this stage:

1. To develop environmental quality standards or targets.
2. To predict expected environmental impacts based on available surveys and data.
3. To analyse and assess the expected or planned development in terms of likely environmental damage to proceed, modify, change or cancel the project.

Stage III: Formation and Evaluation of Alternative Plans

Alternative plans which satisfy environmental goals and objectives need formulation and critical assessment with respect to ranking of their relative usefulness. Evaluating the environmental impact of each alternative plan involves determining the likely economic, demographic and environmental consequences that would result from their implementation.

Stage IV: Decision, Implementation and Follow-up.

After an environmental plan is chosen, it needs to be implemented and followed up. If evaluation of alternative plans is correct and the right plan is chosen, then there should be no technical problem in implementation and follow-up. However, some times certain deficiencies crop up in implementation and follow-up. Thus environmental impacts of plan implementation should be audited.

Stage V: Public Participation, Consultation and Communication

The content of planning reports, including estimates of environmental impacts should be communicated to the public in a sufficiently clear and comprehensive manner. This is required to get a reliable and representative community assessment of probable impacts.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

It is prepared with the following elements:

1. Preliminary discussion.
2. Writing of EIS.
3. Consultation.
4. Public participation.
5. Reviewing.
6. Decision.
7. Appeal.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

The viability of every project is judged by a single yardstick, a cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis is also required for a reliable and representative EIA. Improved communication and timely dissemination of information among the concerned agencies improves cost-effectiveness. The improvement of cost-effectiveness also needs the following:

1. A close integration of EIA and development planning.
2. Clarity of responsibility and continuity of the presence of a responsible person throughout the project.
3. Reduction and if possible elimination of overlapping responsibilities and simplification of administrative procedures.
4. Laying down an improved system of defining and accounting for environmental costs. Environmental Risk assessment (ERA)

Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA)

ERA begins at the fact-finding/preparation stage when the environmental examination (EIA) indicates a potential hazard. It suggests risk reduction and risk management measures to be incorporated. A typical flowchart highlighting the major components of risk audit management is shown in the Figure 6.8.

 

 

Sustainable development with minimum environmental impact on natural resources and the world has become an urgent issue in every level and process. Government and non-government environmental groups and associations have actively started putting pressure on the concerned authorities for regulations and enforcement of appropriate actions so as to prevent long-term environmental deterioration. The USA enforced one such Act in 1970, as a result of the Act, EIA became a major component of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of USA as a planning instrument due to a strong public opinion of its necessity in predicting the impact of actions and coordinate the interests of other groups. Other countries such as Australia, Canada, France, Japan and Germany also adopted the EIA process to be a part of environmental regulations of these respective countries.

India

An expert committee constituted by the Department of Environment and the National Council of Environmental Planning (NCEP) has adopted a preliminary procedure to prepare an EIA. The NCEP and the Planning Commission have also prepared a checklist to be used as a guideline to assess the environmental impact of industrial projects, construction of roads and railways, mining, hydroelectric and irrigation projects. The international standard of Environmental Management System, ISO 14001 is also being increasingly adopted and practiced by many Indian companies. However, EIA needs further development and wider acceptance and implementation in India.

Developed Countries

EIA was adopted in USA in 1970 through NEPA. Public agencies have to prepare a preliminary EIS report before taking any action and federal agencies have to prepare an EIS for the proposed project to determine whether the project affects the environment positively or negatively. The Council of Environmental Quality is the authorized body in the USA to check the implementation of EIA requirement and revise the regulations if required.

In Canada, according to the Canadian Federal Government’s environmental assessment and review process, the federal agencies screen the project and its adverse effects followed by the preparation of an initial Environmental Evaluation Report. Then the Department of Environment reviews it thoroughly. Sometimes, the Environmental Assessment Panel, a small group of experts constituted by the Federal Environmental Review Office, reviews the impact of a project and provides guidelines to the environmental agency, collects and reviews public opinions and forwards proposal actions to the government for decision at the level of the Ministry of Environment and the concerned department.

In Japan, the government issued guidelines for project reviews with respect to environmental impact in 1972. This was followed by the formation of the EIA department in the environmental agency and the introduction of the legislation according to which compensations are to be paid to those who are environmentally affected by a project.

In Britain, the Centre for Environmental Management and Planning (CEMP) at Aberdeen University prepared a document on the environment in 1973, with the funding of the Scottish Development Department (SDD) and Department of Environment; this was followed by the adoption of EIA guidelines by the industries.

In Germany, the public is highly aware about environmental concerns, impacts and the short-term and long-term action plans needed. In 1975, the Interior Ministry issued a model procedure for examining public measures for environmental compatibility on the basis of the principles for the EIA of Federal Actions. Though there is no legislation to enforce but the Ministry of Economic Cooperation involves itself in various bilateral programmes regarding implementation of the EIA.

EIA in Developing Countries

Apart from India, Brazil is one of the developing countries which has set up its Secretariats of Environment as long back as 1973. It issued the National Environmental Policy Law in 1981. The permit system, requiring detailed EIA reports from the project developer was introduced by the Government of Rio de Janeiro in 1977. This was followed by the National Environmental Law in 1981 to direct enforcement of EIA implementation. Among developing nations, Brazil is ahead in logistics, legislations and technical manpower in them field of environmental management.

In Indonesia, though the Government passed the Environmental Management Law in 1982 to emphasize the necessity for it, so far, no regulations or procedures have been enforced.

In the Philippines, NEPA which functions under the Ministry of Human Settlement, evaluates projects and issues Environmental Exemption Certificates or refers to the President for approval if the environmental impact is likely to be serious.

The status of EIA in India, a developing country has already been discussed earlier.

6.11 Precautionary Principle

In order to overcome the limitations of the ERA policy and to give a protective cover to human beings and the environment, the Precautionary Principle was introduced for the first time in 1984 in the First International Conference on the protection of the North Sea. The advancement of science and technology has created more and more uncertainties about the after-effects of the applications of these technologies. This cause and effect relationship may take a long time to fully establish or it may not be established scientifically at all, but its after-effects may be disastrous and irreversible for the environment. To protect our environment from damage, strong preventive measures have to be taken at the first sign of damage. For example, in 1970 the dense forests of the then West Germany suddenly started dying. There was no evidence that acid rain generated by emissions of the thermal power plant was responsible for this yet the government ordered cutting down of the emissions of the power plant and the problem was solved. Similarly, the use of mercury in thermometers, freon in refrigerators or even CO₂ exhaust from automobiles and different plants may affect biodiversity. Hence, they are banned. The formal concept of Precautionary Principle was generated from the German socio-legal traditions in the 1930s based on the concept of good household management.

The Precautionary Principle is a moral and political principle which states that, ‘If an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public, in the absence of a scientific consensus that would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate them to take the action.”

In 1998, at the Wingspread Conference on Precautionary Principle convened by the Science and Environmental Health Network the principle was explained as, ‘When an activity raises the threat of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationship is not fully established scientifically.’

In the Rio Declaration (Earth Summit) 1992, in Principle 15 of Agenda 21, the precautionary approach was codified for the first time at the global level to protect the environment. It states that:

1. Every state should apply the principle according to their capabilities.
2. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

The Precautionary Principle is now widely accepted as a fundamental concept of national environmental laws and regulations in management instruments at the international, regional and domestic levels. It is used across diverse areas such as pollution, toxic chemicals, food, fisheries management, species introduction, wildlife, trade and so on. Application of the principle in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation is clearly essential. The Precautionary Principle is elaborated in the Water Law of Israel, in the Environmental Protection Act of the Czech Republic and also in the Environmental Protection Act (1996) of Pakistan.

Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)

This as the name suggests is based on a simple principle that those who pollute the environment must also pay for the damages caused by them. This idea originated in the 1970s when the members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) introduced a payment method where pollution control costs are to be financed by polluters alone and not the public in general. Hence, this method of environmental financing gets its name Polluter Pays Principle. Later in 1985, economic instruments such as pollution taxes, user charges and subsidies were also added to OECD environmental guidelines.

This principle, when adopted in a country with a higher level of poverty and economic inequality such as India or Thailand, can hurt the poor and worsen economic inequality. There would be a tendency that low-income families would end up paying the cost of environmental protection while the wealthy would become the major beneficiaries of the improved environment. For instance, insecticide-free vegetables are generally more expensive and are sold at supermarkets instead of local fresh markets. Cheap clone computers usually come in ordinary cardboard boxes while the more expensive Apple machines are packaged in brown recyclable containers. Higher-end luxurious automobiles are now equipped with CFC free air conditioners and the list is endless.

There are some poverty-struck families whose income itself comes from environmental exploitation, either in cash or kind. Landless farmers encroach upon watershed areas in search of insecure cultivated areas to grow suitable cash crops. If one takes the example of poor business people who cannot afford the additional cost of installing a new engine in their pick-up trucks in order to improve exhaust emission and hence have no other option but to pollute clean air. Hence, at this point it would not be an exaggeration to say that environmental conservation or an improved environment is a luxury for the rich and a burden for the poor.

However, the proponents of this principle may argue that it will force only the polluting factories to pay for the environmental damages that they have caused and hence encourage them to install suitable treatment devices to pollute less. Unfortunately, the story does not end here because even if the polluter pays, the principle is targeted at factory owners, the poor will eventually have to end up paying their part of pollution charges through price hikes due to the installation of the treatment devices.

Successful environmental conservation not only incorporates an appropriate method of payment but there is also a need to achieve the objectives of efficiency and cost-effectiveness to promote sustainable development.

PPP cannot ensure efficiency as it determines only who and not how much one has to invest in pollution control. Even if this principle is adopted, policy makers need to regulate the level of pollution.

Moreover as it only determines the who pays factor and not who should be conducting pollution control activities, it is not cost-effective either.

There are some economic instruments such as pollution tax which achieve the dual goals of efficiency and cost-effectiveness and belong to PPP but on the whole this principle hampers sustainable development in a society where both poverty and economic inequality co-exist. Making the polluters pay seems justifiable but when these polluters are poor, then incorporating a principle such as this in the administrative system would not only be morally unjust but it would also be hardly effective in achieving the goals for which it was formed.

Beneficiary Pays Principle (BPP)

In a developing country such as India, the polluters often turn out to be the low-income families who use the environment as a supplement to their tiny income. When these poverty-struck people have to live practically a hand-to-mouth existence to earn two square meals a day then it seems quite logical to think that environmental conservation would not even exist in their list of priorities. At such a stage, the BPP can be convincing when it is used in the context of a developing country because unlike the PPP it assigns environmental rights to those who benefit from environmental improvement than any one who pollutes (more often the poor than the rich).Thus, BPP is used in place of PPP when it is required to ease the economic gap between the rich and the poor. For example, the PPP requires the poor commuters on public buses to pay a higher fee to finance a cleaner and smoke-free bus exhaust emission for everyone to enjoy clean and green air. However, BPP argues that it should be financed by all urban residents and not just the commuters as clean air would benefit everyone.

The BPP suggests that funding for environmental improvement should be obtained from its beneficiaries and hence the name.

This method of financing would generate larger revenue for the government as the rich are willing and capable of paying more for environmental enrichment. Further, a given amount of revenue generated from pollution charges would constitute a greater portion of income of the poor than the rich.

These examples illustrate the validity of BPP as a method of financing environmental improvement in the context of a developing country. The choice among these payment methods depends on considerations of fairness and social justice. There is no readymade formula to dictate which principle should be adopted.

Emissions Trading (Cap and Trade)

This is an administrative approach to promote and control pollution by providing financial incentives for achieving reduction in the emission of pollutants. Here, an administrative body or a central governing body takes the administrative approach. It may be an international body, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) or even the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB). The maximum amount of pollutants that a company or a group can emit has a limit or cap set by a governing body. The company or the group is then issued an emission permit and is required to hold an equivalent number of allowances or credits basing on this cap. At no given time can the cap be less than the total amount of allowances and credits. It is also called ‘cap and trade’ because emission trading involves both cap and trade. The underlying principle of emission trading is that a company or a group must pay a charge for polluting and this charge is proportional to the quantum of pollution that they emit into the environment.

Several pollutants such as Greenhouse gases and nitrous oxide (that cause acid rain), have active trading programs.

Carbon Trading

The idea of carbon trade watch came into force in 2002. The inclusion of pollution trading policy in the Kyoto Protocol signals a historical proliferation of the free market principle into the environmental sphere. With a focus on emerging Greenhouse gases, carbon trading watch monitors the impact of pollution trading upon environmental, social and economic justice.

 

 

According to the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, all the countries are required to reduce their Greenhouse gas emission by five per cent from the 1990 levels in the next 10 years or pay a price to those that do. That means if a country is a consumer of any environmental value (clean air) it must pay a producer an equivalent value.

ISO 14000

ISO 14000 is a series of international standards on environmental management tools and systems introduced in 1996 by the International Standards Organization (ISO). The ISO is an apex body on standardizations in the world, formed in 1946 with the national bodies of most of the countries as its members; it has mostly developed technical standards to facilitate international exchange of goods and services. In 1987, it introduced ISO 9000 — the quality management system with emphasis on continual improvement of the process and the quality of goods and services. After the success of ISO 9000 quality management system, the ISO introduced the ISO 14000 series of environmental management system in 1996.

In the past, environmental management systems were reactive, curative and oriented towards solving a problem for compliance of regulations. Increasing irreversible environmental degradation, resource depletion, greater socio-environmental compulsions, stronger regulations, international obligations and global competition have made economic growth without environmental sustainability of an industry temporary, self defeating and disastrous. Industries throughout the world have now been voluntarily adopting quality management systems and environmental management systems to bring down production cost, waste and environmental degradation and achieve continual improvement of process efficiencies to remain globally competitive.

Many countries and regional groupings — UK, Canada, USA, Germany, Japan and the European Union — have their own standards, regulations and eco-labelling programmes to address environmental issues. These standards, regulations and eco-labelling programmes vary from each other. A single standard will ensure that there are no conflicts between regional interpretations of good environmental practice and the same standard is uniformly followed throughout the world. The ISO 14000 series of environmental management system emerged primarily as a result of the Uruguay round of GATT negotiations and the Rio Summit on environment held in 1992.

SAGE, the Strategic Advisory Group on Environment was formed in 1991 and it recommended the creation of TC 207— a new international committee in 1992. TC 207, with its different sub-committees, formulated the new series of ISO 14000 standards which were finally approved in 1996.

ISO 14000 series of environmental management system addresses the following six areas of environmental management:

1. Environmental Management System (EMS).
2. Environmental Auditing (EA).
3. Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE).
4. Environmental Labelling (EL).
5. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
6. Environmental Aspects in Products Standards (EAPS).

EMS, EA and EPE are related to an environmental management system addressing organizational issues LCL, EL and EPAS are product-oriented standards addressing environmental issues in practice and deal with core business issues such as how products are designed and marketed.

The ISO 14000 series of environmental management system does the following:

1. Promote a common approach to environmental management similar to quality management.
2. Enhance an organization’s ability to attain and measure environmental performance.
3. Facilitate trade and remove trade barriers.

The ISO 14000 series requires an environmental policy to be adopted by an organization with the commitment from the top management for continuous improvement and compliance of legislations communicated to its employees and the public and audited regularly to assess implementation. It focuses on management rather than on goals. It promotes audit and review of management, not of attainment. It establishes principles and uniform approaches for product evaluation and communication of environmental attributes. It addresses the immediate and long-term impact of the organization’s products, processes and services on the environment and provides a consistent system in the allocation of resources, assigning of responsibilities and continual evaluation of practices, procedures and processes. Like ISO 9000, ISO 14000 standards are voluntary management standards and not performance specifications and thus do not establish required environmental performance levels. The interested organizations that have designed and implemented an EMS can apply for certification from the Certification Body accredited by the Accreditation Council which is the national body set up to evaluate the competence of the certification bodies.

Six sub-committees of TC 207 namely SC1 (EMS) and SC2 (EA) developed the family of specifications of ISO 14000 series. Table 6.1 gives the list of specifications.

 

Table 6.1 Specifications of ISO 14000 Series

Standard	Title/description	Applications/Remarks
ISO 14000	Guide to Environmental Management Principles, Systems and Supporting Techniques
ISO 14001	Environmental Management Systems-Specification with Guidance for Use	Applicable to any organization producing and/or manufacturing any product or providing a service.
ISO 14004	Guidance to Requirements of ISO 14001	A structured approach to setting environmental objectives and targets and to establishing and monitoring operational controls.
ISO 140010	Guidelines for Environmental Auditing: General Principles
ISO 140011	Guidelines for Environmental Auditing: Audit Procedures
ISO 140012	Guidelines for environmental auditing—Criteria for Environmental Auditors.
ISO 140013 to 14015	Guidelines for environmental auditing: Audit Programmes, Reviews and Assessment
ISO 14020 to 14025	Environmental Labeling.	Covers labels and declarations.
ISO 140030	Post Production Environment Assessment
ISO 140031/32	Guidelines on Environmental Performance Evaluation
ISO 14040 to 14044	Life Cycle Assessment: General Principles and Practices	Discusses pre-production planning and environment goal setting.
ISO 14050	Terms and Definitions	Glossary
ISO 14060	Guide for Inclusion of Environmental Aspects in Product Standards
ISO 14062	Environmental Impact Goals	Discusses improvements of it
ISO 14063	Further Communications on Environmental Impacts	An addendum to ISO 14020.
ISO 14064–1 to 3:2006	Greenhouse Gases Part 1, 2 & 3	Specification with guidance.
ISO 19011	Audit Protocol for both 14000 and 9000 Series Standards together	Replaces ISO 14011

SUMMARY

Air and water pollution are one of the many consequences of the overuse and abuse of natural resources. Others are depletion of the earth’s protective ozone layer, global warming due to increase in carbon dioxide content by burning of fossil-fuels, the Greenhouse effect, acid rain, decrease in forest cover, soil erosion, the increased rate of species extinction just to name a few. The concept of sustainable development strengthens the interdependence of human needs and environmental requirements. Sustainable development maintains a balance between social and economic development along with protection of the environment.

Energy is one of the major pillars of economic development of society. The importance of the development of renewable energy sources as an alternative to fossil fuels for a sustainable energy base was recognized in India since 1970.

Efforts are also being made to meet the water crisis by building dams, reservoirs and digging wells to conserve water. Efforts are made for conservation of water by rain water harvesting and watershed management techniques. These surface water bodies are also responsible for recharging the ground water table of the area. Thus, attempts are made to recharge the aquifer, thereby recharging surface water bodies and thus increase the water table.

Environmental movements

The Constitution of India has provisions to make environmental legislation. Many environmental legislation have already been enacted to protect the environment. In addition to the efforts of the government in preventing and controlling environmental pollution, NGOs play a significant role in environmental protection.

Environmental Impact Assesment (EIA)

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a widely recognized study to assess the environmental impact of developmental projects. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the analysis of any possible alteration of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial, caused by the project under consideration.

Polluter Pays Principle (PPP)

Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) as the name suggests, is based on a simple principle that those who pollute the environment must also pay for the damages they have caused. This principle, when adopted in a country with higher levels of poverty and economic inequality such as India or Thailand, can hurt the poor and worsen economic inequality.

Beneficiary Pays Principle (BPP)

As the name indicates, the Beneficiary Pays Principle or BPP suggests that funding for environmental improvement should be obtained from its beneficiaries and hence the name.

This method of financing would generate larger revenue for the government as the rich are willing and capable of paying more for environmental enrichment.

Furthermore, a given amount of revenue generated from pollution charges would constitutes a greater portion of the income of the poor than the rich.

Emissions Trading, Carbon Trading

Carbon trading watch monitors the impact of pollution trading upon environmental, social and economic justice. After the success of the ISO 9000 quality management system, the International Standards Organization introduced the ISO 14000 series of environmental management system in 1996. Increasing irreversible environmental degradation, resource depletion, greater socio-environmental compulsions, stronger regulations, international obligations and global competitiveness have now made economic growth without environmental sustainability of an industry temporary, self-defeating and disastrous. The ISO 14000 series of environmental management system addresses the following six areas of environmental management:

1. Environmental Management System (EMS).
2. Environmental Auditing (EA).
3. Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE).
4. Environmental Labeling (EL).
5. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
6. Environmental Aspects in Products Standards (EAPS).

EMS, EA and EPE are related to the environmental management system that addresses organizational issues. The ISO 14000 series of environmental management system promotes a common approach to environmental management similar to quality management, enhances an organization’s ability to attain and measure environmental performance and facilitates trade and removes trade barriers.

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by the concept of sustainable development?
2. How do you propose that development work progress along with sustenance of our environment?
3. ‘Urban people have more energy demand than rural people.’ Explain the statement.
4. What is a watershed? How can watershed management solve the problem of depletion of the ground water table?
5. Write a short note on the success story of sustainability and environmental restoration at Auroville.
6. Explain how consumerism has affected the present society.
7. Write a note on the Chernobyl disaster.
8. What do you understand by the term Environmental ethics?
9. Write a note on different environmental movements for the conservation of environmental resources.
10. What are the powers provided to the Central Government by the Environmental Protection Act, 1986?
11. What are the Indian laws related to human rights?
12. What are the recent climate changes noticed in the environment?
13. What is acid rain? Explain the steps taken to prevent acid rain.
14. What are the effects of global warming on the environment and what are the means to combat it?
15. Discuss the environmental policies at the national and state level.
16. What are the objectives of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)?

SHORT-ANSWER TYPE QUESTiONS

1. Define sustainable development?
2. What is Frontier Mentality?
3. What are the major criteria for a sustainable society in India?
4. Write a short note on the energy problem related to urban people.
5. Write short notes on:
   1. Rain water harvesting.
   2. Watershed management.
   3. Biodiesel generation.
6. Explain the role of nuclear energy for the betterment of human civilization.
7. Write short notes on:
   1. Chipko movement.
   2. Appiko movement.
   3. Movements in Orissa.
8. How are the environment and environmental pollution defined in the Environmental Protection Act?
9. Name five important EPAs in India.
10. Write short notes on:
    1. Greenhouse gases.
    2. Global warming and its control.
    3. Ozone layer depletion.
11. What are effects of ozone layer depletion?
12. What is acid rain? How is it formed?
13. What are the effects of acid rain?
14. What is Agenda-21?
15. What is Green Bench?
16. Write short notes on:
    1. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
    3. The Environment (Protection Act), 1986.
    4. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1971.
17. Explain the difference between smog and fog.
18. Write short notes on:
    1. London Smog.
    2. Los Angeles Smog.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Sustainable development
   1. meets the need of the present without compromising with those of future generations.
   2. maintains a balance between social and economic development along with protection of nature.
   3. is consistent with long term development and growth.
   4. All of the above.
2. Frontier mentality is believed by
   1. environmentalists and conservationists.
   2. politicians and bureaucrat.
   3. economists and technocrats.
   4. farmers and laymen.
3. A geographic unit that collects, stores and releases water is
   1. wasteland.
   2. watershed.
   3. wetland.
   4. water divider.
4. Saline and alkaline lands are types of
   1. barren land.
   2. fallow land.
   3. uncultivable land.
   4. wasteland.
5. Atmospheric pollutants are mainly present in
   1. ionosphere.
   2. stratosphere.
   3. lower mesosphere and whole ionosphere.
   4. troposphere and lower stratosphere.
6. The most important Greenhouse gas that is being affected by human activities and results in global warming is
   1. carbon dioxide.
   2. water vapour.
   3. methane.
   4. nitrous oxide.
7. The two acidic oxides mainly responsible for acid rain are
   1. sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide.
   2. sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide.
   3. sulphur trioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
   4. sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
8. Acid rain is any rain with pH
   1. below 5.6.
   2. above 5.6.
   3. equal to 5.6.
   4. exactly equal to 7.
9. The Taj Mahal at Agra is affected by
   1. stone disease.
   2. stone cancer.
   3. stone tumour.
   4. marble cancer.
10. Smog is an odd combination of
    1. smoke and mist.
    2. mist and fog.
    3. smoke and fog.
    4. smoke, fog and mist.
11. Chlorofluorocarbons and freons are
    1. used as coolants in refrigerators.
    2. air conditioners.
    3. responsible for ozone layer depletion.
    4. All of the above.
12. PAN is a byproduct of
    1. photochemical smog.
    2. London smog.
    3. sulphurous smog.
    4. reducing smog.
13. The perfect condition for the formation of sulphurous smog is
    1. humidity.
    2. subsidence inversion.
    3. low temperature.
    4. sunlight to carry out photochemical reactions.,
14. The NGOs
    1. play a significant role in environmental protection.
    2. mainly work at the grass root level.
    3. act as the eyes and ears of the government.
    4. All of the above.
15. The Appiko Movement ( ‘tree hugging’ ) was started in
    1. Karnataka.
    2. Delhi.
    3. Orissa.
    4. Gujarat.
16. The United Nations Conference on Human Environment was organized at
    1. Rio de Janiero.
    2. Paris.
    3. Stockholm.
    4. Delhi.
17. ________ is a widely recognized study of environmental impacts on developmental projects
    1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
    2. Environmental Risk Assessment (EIA)
    3. Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
    4. Environmental Management System (EMS)
18. The Precautionary principle was codified for the first time at
    1. Earth Summit in 1992.
    2. United Nations Framework Convention in 1997.
    3. The Kyoto Protocol.
    4. Is yet to be codified.
19. Carbon trading
    1. is a fundamental concept of national environmental laws and regulations.
    2. monitors the impact of pollution upon environmental, social and economic justice.
    3. suggests that funding for environmental improvement should be obtained from its beneficiaries.
    4. monitors the emission of hydrocarbons from automobiles.
20. The Apex body of standardization in the world formed in 1946 is
    1. the International Society of Standardization.
    2. the International Organization of Standardization.
    3. the International of Standards Organization.
    4. the Council of International Standardization.

ANSWERS

1 (d)

2 (c)

3) b

4 (d)

5 (d)

6 (a)

7 (d)

8 (a)

9 (b)

10 (c)

11 (d)

12 (a)

13 (b)

14 (d)

15 (a)

16 (c)

17 (a)

18 (a)

19 (b)

20 (c)