Contents
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Authors
PART IFOUNDAT IONS OF HUMAN FACTORS
Chapter 1Historical Foundations of Human Factors
Introduction
Electronic and Digital Equipment
Computer Technology
Healthcare Systems
Cyber Security
Serious Accidents Resulting from Major System Failures
What is Human Factors and Ergonomics?
Definition
Basic Human Performance
Human–Machine Systems and Domains of Specialization
Historical Antecedents
Psychology of Human Performance
Sensory Psychophysics
Speed of Mental Processing
Wundt and the Study of Attention
Learning and Skill Acquisition
Human Performance in Applied Settings
Job Specialization and Productivity
Early Human Factors Journals
Biomechanics and Physiology of Human Performance
Summary
Emergence of the Human Factors Profession
Contemporary Human Factors
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 2Research Methods in Human Factors
Introduction
Distinguishing Features of Science
Foundations of Science
Scientific Method
Goals of Science
Measurement
Reliability, Validity, and Control
Research Methods
Descriptive Methods
Archival Data
Naturalistic Observation and Ethnographic Methods
Surveys and Questionnaires
Interviews and Focus Groups
Diaries and Studies of Log Files
Correlational and Differential Research
Experimental Methods
Between-Subject Designs
Within-Subject Designs
Complex Designs
Summary
Statistical Methods
Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency and Variability
Correlation Coefficient
Inferential Statistics
Probability
Statistical Hypothesis Testing
A Study Evaluating Human Factors Design
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 3Reliability and Human Error in Systems
Introduction
Central Concept in Human Factors: The System
Implications of the System Concept
The Operator Is Part of a Human–Machine System
The System Goals Take Precedence over Everything Else
Systems Are Hierarchical
Systems and Their Components Have Inputs and Outputs
A System Has Structure Deficiencies in System Performance Are Due to Inadequacies of System
Design or System Components
A System Operates within a Larger Environment
System Variables
Physical System Variables
Operator Variables
Summary
Human Error
Why Human Error Occurs
Error Taxonomies
Action Classification
Failure Classification
Processing Classification
Intentional Classification
Summary
Reliability Analysis
System Reliability
Human Reliability
Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP)
Stochastic Modeling Technique
Systematic Human Error Reduction and Prediction Approach (SHERPA) and Task Analysis for Error Identification (TAFEI)
Human Cognitive Reliability Model
A Technique for Human Error ANAlysis (ATHEANA)
Cognitive Reliability and Error Analysis Method (CREAM)
Human Performance Data Sources
Probabilistic Risk Analysis
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 4Human Information Processing
Introduction
A Three-Stage Model
Perceptual Stage
Cognitive Stage
Action Stage
Human Information Processing and the Three-Stage Model
Psychological Representation of the Physical World
Classical Methods for Detection and Discrimination
Signal-Detection Methods and Theory
Methods
Theory
Detectability and Bias
Changes in Criterion
Applications
Psychophysical Scaling
Chronometric Methods
Subtractive Logic
Additive-Factors Logic
Continuous Information Accumulation
Psychophysiological Measures
Summary
Recommended ReadingS
PART IIPerceptual Factors And Their Applications
Chapter 5Visual Perception
Introduction
Properties of Sensory Systems
The Visual Sensory System
The Focusing System
Cornea and Lens
Pupil
Vergence
Focusing Problems
Summary
The Retina
Photoreceptors
Neural Layers
Retinal Structure and Acuity
Visual Pathways
Visual Cortex
Dorsal and Ventral Streams
Visual Perception
Brightness
Dark and Light Adaptation
Spectral Sensitivity
The Purkinje Shift
Temporal and Spatial Summation
Lightness
Spatial and Temporal Resolution
Acuity
Spatial Sensitivity
Temporal Sensitivity
Masking
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 6Perception of Objects in the World
Introduction
Color Perception
Color Mixing
Trichromatic Theory
Opponent Process Theory
Perceptual Organization
Depth Perception
Oculomotor Cues
Monocular Visual Cues
Binocular Visual Cues
Size and Shape Constancy
Illusions of Size and Direction
Perception of Motion
Object Motion
Induced Motion
Apparent Motion
Pattern Recognition
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 7Hearing, Proprioception, and the Chemical Senses
Introduction
Hearing
Sound and the Auditory Sensory System
Sound Stimuli
Outer and Middle Ear
Inner Ear
The Auditory Pathways
Summary
Perception of Basic Properties
Loudness
Pitch
Timbre, Consonance, and Dissonance
Perception of Higher-Level Properties
Perceptual Organization
Sound Localization
Speech Perception
The Vestibular System
The Somesthetic System
Sensory System
Perception of Touch
Perception of Temperature and Pain
The Chemical Systems
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 8The Display of Visual, Auditory, and Tactual Information
Introduction
Visual Displays
Static Displays
Effectiveness of Displays
Alphanumeric Displays
Symbolic Displays
Coding Dimensions
Color Coding
Shape Coding
Combination Codes
Dynamic Displays
Analog and Digital Displays
Display Arrangements
Motion Interpretability
Other Displays
Head-up Displays
Helmet-Mounted Displays
Warning Signals and Labels
Auditory Displays
Warning and Alarm Signals
Three-Dimensional Displays
Speech Displays
Tactile Displays
Summary
Recommended Readings
PART IIICognitive Factors And Their Applications
Chapter 9Attention and the Assessment of Mental Workload
Introduction
Models of Attention
Bottleneck Models
Filter Theory
Attenuation and Late-Selection Theories
Resource Models
Unitary-Resource Models
Multiple-Resource Models
Executive Control Models
Summary
Modes of Attention
Selective Attention
Auditory Tasks
Visual Tasks
Switching and Controlling Attention
Divided Attention
Arousal and Vigilance
Mental Workload Assessment
Empirical Techniques
Primary-Task Measures
Secondary-Task Measures
Psychophysiological Measures
Subjective Measures
Analytical Techniques
Comparison
Expert Opinion
Mathematical Models
Task Analysis
Simulation Models
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 10Retention and Comprehension of Information
Introduction
Sensory Memory
Visual Sensory Memory
Tactile and Auditory Sensory Memories
What Is the Role of Sensory Memory?
Short-term Memory
Basic Characteristics
Improving Short-Term Retention
Memory Search
Models of Short-Term, or Working, Memory
Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model
Cowan’s Activation Model
Imagery
Long-term Memory
Basic Characteristics
Processing Strategies
Comprehending Verbal and Nonverbal Material
Semantic Memory
Written Communication
Spoken Communication
Situational Awareness
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 11Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Introduction
Problem Solving
The Problem Space Hypothesis
Analogy
Logic and Reasoning
Deduction
Conditional Reasoning
Categorical Reasoning
Induction and Concepts
Abduction and Hypotheses
Decision Making
Normative Theory
Descriptive Theory
Transitivity and Framing
Bounded Rationality
Training and Task Environment
Decision Aids
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 12Experts and Expert Systems
Introduction
Acquisition of Cognitive Skill
Power Law of Practice
Taxonomies of Skill
Phases of Skill Acquisition
Skill-Rule-Knowledge Framework
Theories of Skill Acquisition
A Production System Model
A Connectionist Model
Transfer of Learning
Views of Transfer
Part-Whole Transfer
Expert Performance
Distinctions between Experts and Novices
Naturalistic Decision Making
Expert Systems
Characteristics of Expert Systems
Knowledge Base
Inference Engine
User Interface
Human Factors Issues
Selecting the Task
Representation of Knowledge
Interface Design
Validating the System
Example Systems
Desplate
Aldes
Summary
Recommended Readings
PART IVAction Factors And Their Applications
Chapter 13Response Selection and Principles of Compatibility
Introduction
Simple Reactions
Choice Reactions
Speed-Accuracy Tradeoff
Temporal Uncertainty
Stimulus-Response Uncertainty
Principles of Compatibility
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
Relative Location Coding
Theoretical Interpretations
S-C-R Compatibility
Practice and Response Selection
Irrelevant Stimuli
Dual-Task and Sequential Performance
Psychological Refractory Period Effect
Stimulus and Response Repetition
Preferences for Controlling Actions
Grip Patterns
Population Stereotypes
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 14Control of Movement and Learning of Motor Skill
Introduction
Physiological Foundations of Movement
The Musculoskeletal System
Control of Movement
Mass-Spring Property and Motor Unit
Spinal Control
Control by the Brain
Control of Action
Closed-Loop Control
Open-Loop Control
Implications
Invariant Characteristics
Modular Organization
Hierarchical Arrangement
Role of Feedback
Aimed Movements
Fitts’s Law
Application
Visual Feedback
Bimanual Control
Grasping and Intercepting Objects
Other Aspects of Motor Control
Posture
Locomotion
Eye and Head Movements
Motor Learning
Conditions and Schedules of Practice and Training
Amount of Practice
Fatigue and Practice
Distribution of Practice
Variability of Practice
Mental Practice
Training with Simulators
Feedback and Skill Acquisition
Knowledge of Performance
Precision of KR
Frequency of KR
Delay of KR
KR and Self-Control
Role of KR
Knowledge of Performance
Observational Learning
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 15Controls and Controlling Actions
Introduction
Control Features
Basic Dimensions
Control Resistance
Types of Resistance
Performance and Resistance
Manipulation–Outcome Relations
Tracking Tasks
Deadspace and Backlash
Control–Display Ratio
Control System Order
Control Panels
Coding of Controls
Location Coding
Labels
Color Coding
Shape Coding
Size Coding
Texture Coding
Other Codes
Control Arrangements
Preventing Accidental Operation
Specific Controls
Hand-Operated Controls
Pushbutton and Toggle Switches
Rotary Selector Switches and Knobs
Multifunction Controls
Foot-Operated Controls
Specialized Controls
Speech Controls
Gaze-Based and Head-Movement Controls
Gesture-Based Control
Teleoperation
Summary
Recommended Readings
PART VEnvironmental Factors And Their Applications
Chapter 16Anthropometrics and Workspace Design
Introduction
Engineering Anthropometry
Anthropometric Measurement
Sources of Anthropometric Data
Biomechanical Factors
Cumulative Trauma Disorders
Hand Tools
Design Principles for Hand Tools
Bend the Handle, not the Wrist
Allow an Optimal Grip
Use Compressible Grip Surfaces
An Example Design Problem
Manual or Power Tools
Additional Principles
Manual Materials Handling
Lifting and Lowering
Carrying and Push/Pulling
Workspace Design
Working Position
Seating
Positioning of Visual Displays
Positioning of Controls and Objects
Steps in Workspace Design
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 17Environmental Ergonomics
Introduction
Lighting
Light Measurement
Light Sources
Daylighting
Artificial Lighting
Illumination and Performance
Glare
Noise
Noise Measurement
Noise Level and Performance
Hearing Loss
Noise Reduction
Vibration
Whole-Body Vibration
Segmental Vibration
Thermal Comfort and Air Quality
Stress
General Adaptation Syndrome and Stressors
Occupational Stress
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 18Human Resource Management and Macroergonomics
Introduction
The Individual Employee
Job Analysis and Design
Personnel Selection
Training
On-the-job Training
On-site and Off-site Training
Performance Appraisal
Circadian Rhythms and Work Schedules
Circadian Rhythms
Work Schedules
Interactions Among Employees
Personal Space
Territoriality
Crowding and Privacy
Office Space and Arrangement
Traditional Offices
Open-plan Offices
Interactions Between Organizational Groups
Communication in Organizations
Employee Participation
Organizational Development
Summary
Recommended Readings
Chapter 19The Practice of Human Factors
Introduction
System Development
Making the Case for Human Factors
Occupational Ergonomics Programs
System and Product Development
The System Development Process
Phases
Facilitating Human Factors Inputs
Cognitive and Physical Models of Human Performance
Engineering Models of Human Performance
Cognitive Models
Digital Human Models
Integrative Cognitive Architectures
Control Theory Models
Forensic Human Factors
Liability
Expert Testimony
Human Factors and Society
Recommended Readings
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Glossary
References
List of Credits
Index
