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by Erchin Serpedin, Khalid A. Qaraqe, Muhammad Zeeshan Shakir, Muhammad Ismail
Green Heterogeneous Wireless Networks
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgements
Dedication
Part One: Introduction to Green Networks
Chapter 1: Green Network Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction: Need for Green Networks
1.2 Traffic Models
1.3 Energy Efficiency and Consumption Models in Wireless Networks
1.4 Performance Trade-Offs
1.5 Summary
Chapter 2: Green Network Solutions
2.1 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at Low and/or Bursty Call Traffic Loads
2.2 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at High and/or Continuous Call Traffic Loads
2.3 Green Projects and Standards
2.4 Road Ahead
2.5 Summary
Part Two: Multi-homing Resource Allocation
Chapter 3: Green Multi-homing Approach
3.1 Heterogeneous Wireless Medium
3.2 Green Multi-homing Resource Allocation
3.3 Challenging Issues
3.4 Summary
Chapter 4: Multi-homing for a Green Downlink
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Win–Win Cooperative Green Resource Allocation
4.3 IDC Interference-Aware Green Resource Allocation
4.4 Summary
Chapter 5: Multi-homing for a Green Uplink
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Data Calls
5.3 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Video Calls
5.4 Summary
Chapter 6: Radio Frequency and Visible Light Communication Internetworking
6.1 Introduction
6.2 VLC Fundamentals
6.3 Green RF–VLC Internetworking
6.4 Summary
Part Three: Network Management Solutions
Chapter 7: Dynamic Planning in Green Networks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Dynamic Planning with Dense Small-Cell Deployment
7.3 Dynamic Planning with Cooperative Networking
7.4 Balanced Dynamic Planning Approach
7.5 Summary
Chapter 8: Greening the Cell Edges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Two-Tier Small-Cell-on-Edge Deployment
8.3 Energy-Aware Transmission Design
8.4 Area Spectral Efficiency of HetNets
8.5 Analytical Bounds on ASE of HetNets
8.6 Analytical Bounds on ASE over Generalized- Fading Channel
8.7 Energy Analysis of HetNets
8.8 Ecology and Economics of HetNets
8.9 Summary
APPENDIX A - Simulation Parameters
APPENDIX B - Proof of (8.38)
Chapter 9: D2D Communications in Hierarchical HetNets
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Modelling Hierarchical Heterogeneous Networks
9.3 Spectral Efficiency Analysis
9.4 Average User Transmission Power Analysis
9.5 Backhaul Energy Analysis
9.6 Summary
Appendix A
Appendix B - Simulation Parameters
Chapter 10: Emerging Device-Centric Communications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Emerging Device-Centric Paradigms
10.3 Devices-to-Device Communications
10.4 Optimal Selection of Source Devices and Radio Interfaces
10.5 Optimal Packet Split among Devices
10.6 Green Analysis of Mobile Devices
10.7 Some Challenges and Future Directions
10.8 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Prev
Previous Chapter
Cover
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Next Chapter
Title Page
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgements
Dedication
Part One: Introduction to Green Networks
Chapter 1: Green Network Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction: Need for Green Networks
1.2 Traffic Models
1.3 Energy Efficiency and Consumption Models in Wireless Networks
1.4 Performance Trade-Offs
1.5 Summary
Chapter 2: Green Network Solutions
2.1 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at Low and/or Bursty Call Traffic Loads
2.2 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at High and/or Continuous Call Traffic Loads
2.3 Green Projects and Standards
2.4 Road Ahead
2.5 Summary
Part Two: Multi-homing Resource Allocation
Chapter 3: Green Multi-homing Approach
3.1 Heterogeneous Wireless Medium
3.2 Green Multi-homing Resource Allocation
3.3 Challenging Issues
3.4 Summary
Chapter 4: Multi-homing for a Green Downlink
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Win–Win Cooperative Green Resource Allocation
4.3 IDC Interference-Aware Green Resource Allocation
4.4 Summary
Chapter 5: Multi-homing for a Green Uplink
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Data Calls
5.3 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Video Calls
5.4 Summary
Chapter 6: Radio Frequency and Visible Light Communication Internetworking
6.1 Introduction
6.2 VLC Fundamentals
6.3 Green RF–VLC Internetworking
6.4 Summary
Part Three: Network Management Solutions
Chapter 7: Dynamic Planning in Green Networks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Dynamic Planning with Dense Small-Cell Deployment
7.3 Dynamic Planning with Cooperative Networking
7.4 Balanced Dynamic Planning Approach
7.5 Summary
Chapter 8: Greening the Cell Edges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Two-Tier Small-Cell-on-Edge Deployment
8.3 Energy-Aware Transmission Design
8.4 Area Spectral Efficiency of HetNets
8.5 Analytical Bounds on ASE of HetNets
8.6 Analytical Bounds on ASE over Generalized-
Fading Channel
8.7 Energy Analysis of HetNets
8.8 Ecology and Economics of HetNets
8.9 Summary
APPENDIX A - Simulation Parameters
APPENDIX B - Proof of (8.38)
Chapter 9: D2D Communications in Hierarchical HetNets
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Modelling Hierarchical Heterogeneous Networks
9.3 Spectral Efficiency Analysis
9.4 Average User Transmission Power Analysis
9.5 Backhaul Energy Analysis
9.6 Summary
Appendix A
Appendix B - Simulation Parameters
Chapter 10: Emerging Device-Centric Communications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Emerging Device-Centric Paradigms
10.3 Devices-to-Device Communications
10.4 Optimal Selection of Source Devices and Radio Interfaces
10.5 Optimal Packet Split among Devices
10.6 Green Analysis of Mobile Devices
10.7 Some Challenges and Future Directions
10.8 Summary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Green Network Fundamentals
Figure 1.1 Breakdown of power consumption of a wireless cellular network [7]
Figure 1.2 Carbon footprint contribution by the telecommunications industry: (a) 2002 and (b) 2020 [13]
Figure 1.3 Spatial and temporal traffic fluctuations [38]
Figure 1.4 Average daily data traffic profile in a European country [39]
Figure 1.5 Percentage of power consumption at different components of a large-cell BS [27]
Figure 1.6 Different backhaul topologies [55]: (a) ring topology, (b) star topology, and (c) tree topology
Figure 1.7 MT circuit and transmit energy consumption [56]
Figure 1.8 Comparison of (a) energy efficiency and (b) energy consumption indices [60]
Figure 1.9 Performance trade-offs [9]
Figure 1.10 Energy efficiency versus SNR (a) with and (b) without MT circuit power consumption
Chapter 2: Green Network Solutions
Figure 2.1 BS wake-up schemes (a)
-based scheme; (b)
-based scheme: single vacation; (c)
-based scheme: multiple vacations [27]
Figure 2.2 BS switching off mode entrance and exit [27]. (a) BS wilting; (b) BS blossoming
Figure 2.3 Modelling of MT on–off switching as a server with repeated vacations [27]. The model is similar to the BS
-based scheme with multiple vacations
Figure 2.4 Configurations for small-cell deployment [27]. (a) Cell-on-edge deployment; (b) uniformly distributed deployment
Figure 2.5 Illustration of the difference between the relay station and femto-cell
Figure 2.6 Green hybrid solution [27]
Chapter 3: Green Multi-homing Approach
Figure 3.1 Illustration of a heterogeneous wireless network [126]
Figure 3.2 Illustration of multi-homing uplink and downlink radio communications in a heterogeneous wireless medium [126]
Figure 3.3 Centralized and decentralized implementations [126]. (a) Centralized; (b) decentralized
Figure 3.4 Illustration of IDC interference [127]
Figure 3.5 Illustration of the impact of frequency separation between the LTE and WLAN channels on the IDC interference [127]. (a) Maximum interference occur for adjacent LTE and WLAN channels; (b) interference decreases as the frequency separation increases between the LTE and WLAN channels; (c) zero interference for sufficiently faraway LTE and WLAN channels
Figure 3.6 IDC interference on different WLAN channels due to the uplink transmission of LTE at 2,397.5, 2,387.5 and 2,377.5 MHz [127]
Figure 3.7 IDC interference on LTE channels due to the uplink transmission of WLAN at 2,412, 2,422 and 2,432 MHz [127]
Figure 3.8 The presence of multiple BSs/APs for a limited number of radio interfaces per MT
Chapter 4: Multi-homing for a Green Downlink
Figure 4.1 Network coverage areas [137]
Figure 4.2 Illustration of non-cooperative single-network and cooperative multi-homing radio resource allocation. (a) Non-cooperative single-network solution; (b) Cooperative multi-homing solution
Figure 4.3 Total power consumption in the geographical region with different
[137]. The BSs are separated by 250 m. The total bandwidth available at each BS is 10 MHz
Figure 4.4 Power consumption for each BS with different
[137]. The BSs are separated by 250 m. The total bandwidth available at each BS is 10 MHz
Figure 4.5 Total power consumption in the geographical region with different
[137]. The distance between both BSs is 250 m. The total bandwidth available at BS 1 is 10 MHz and BS 2 is in the range
MHz
Figure 4.6 Power consumption for each BS with different
[137]. The distance between both BSs is 250 m. The total bandwidth available at BS 1 is 10 MHz and BS 2 is in the range
MHz
Figure 4.7 Total power consumption in the geographical region with different separation distances between the two BSs [137]. The total bandwidth available at each BS is 10 MHz
Figure 4.8 Power consumption for each BS with different separation distances between the two BSs [137]. The total bandwidth available at each BS is 10 MHz
Figure 4.9 LTE network performance [127]. (a) Achieved data rate; (b) power consumption
Figure 4.10 WLAN performance [127]. (a) Achieved data rate; (b) power consumption
Chapter 5: Multi-homing for a Green Uplink
Figure 5.1 Network coverage areas [54]
Figure 5.2 Illustration of the framework described in Algorithms 5.2.4–5.2.7
Figure 5.3 Achieved energy efficiency versus total power available at each MT [54]. (a) Minimum achieved energy efficiency; (b) average achieved energy efficiency
Figure 5.4 Average achieved satisfaction index versus total power available at any MT [54].
Figure 5.5 GoP structure with frame dependencies [161]. For instance, the circled I frame is an ancestor for the first B and P frames in the base layer and the I frame in the enhancement layer.
Figure 5.6 Flow chart of the proposed energy management sub-system procedure.
Figure 5.7 Performance comparison for the achieved video quality versus time using TEF, EEF and SGF [161].
kJ,
and ε
c
= 0.3.
Figure 5.8 MT residual energy versus time.
kJ,
and ε
c
= 0.3.
Chapter 6: Radio Frequency and Visible Light Communication Internetworking
Figure 6.1 Illustration of VLC transceiver [183]
Figure 6.2 VLC interference in different cell formations [180, 188]
Figure 6.3 Illustration of VLC and RF APs coverage [183, 188]
Figure 6.4 Energy efficiency versus the number of MTs [183]
Figure 6.5 Energy efficiency versus the fixed power of the VLC system [183]
Figure 6.6 Energy efficiency versus the number of LEDs used by the VLC system [183]
Figure 6.7 Energy efficiency versus the LoS availability probability in VLC and RF systems [183]
Figure 6.8 Energy efficiency versus the LoS availability probability in RF systems [183]
Chapter 7: Dynamic Planning in Green Networks
Figure 7.1 Dense macro–pico network [196]
Figure 7.2 Number of active macro BSs for a dense macro–pico network [196]
Figure 7.3 Trade-off between outage probability and energy consumption for a dense macro–pico network [196]
Figure 7.4 Area energy efficiency for a dense macro–pico network [196]
Figure 7.5 User association for a dense macro–pico network [196]
Figure 7.6 Network coverage areas [12]
Figure 7.7 Time sequence of optimization events for the network cooperation energy-saving framework [12]
Figure 7.8 Aggregate traffic mean arrival rate in each cell [12]
Figure 7.9 Call-blocking probability in each cell with the optimal number of active channels from the active BSs [12]
Figure 7.10 Dynamic planning with unbalanced energy saving [197]. MTs with uplink traffic are associated with faraway BSs
Figure 7.11 Example of dynamic planning cluster consisting of two BSs [197]. For simplicity, two tilting angles are assumed per BS leading to two coverage areas per BS
Figure 7.12 Illustration of the fast and slow timescales under consideration, the system states, actions, transition probabilities and the decision-making process [197]
Figure 7.13 Expected downlink energy consumption versus the arrival rate of uplink users and the weighting factor
[197]: (a) balanced approach and (b) unbalanced approach. The spatial distribution is
for downlink users
Figure 7.14 Expected uplink energy consumption versus the arrival rate of uplink users and the weighting factor
[197]: (a) balanced approach and (b) unbalanced approach. The spatial distribution is
for uplink users
Figure 7.15 Expected energy consumption of uplink users versus the spatial distribution of the uplink users near the proximity of the first BS [197]. The uplink users' arrival rate is 0.4
Chapter 8: Greening the Cell Edges
Figure 8.1 Graphical illustration of the two-tier HetNets, where a macro-cell is surrounded by
small-cells around the edge of the reference macro-cell
Figure 8.2 Summary of uplink transmission power adaptation for several competitive networks configurations
Figure 8.3 Geometrical illustration of the macro-cell-level interference problem, where the interfering mobile user is located at
in one of the
co-channel macro-cells at a reuse distance
Figure 8.4 Geometrical illustration of the small-cell-level interference problem where the interfering mobile users are located at
, that is, mobile users are located in two adjacent small-cells of the reference small-cell
Figure 8.5 Comparison of the ASE of MoNet with two different HetNet configurations: (i) COE configuration and (ii) UDC configuration as a function of the reference macro-cell
Figure 8.6 Geometrical illustration of uplink interference showing the worst- and best-case distance of the interferers in both macro and small cellular networks
Figure 8.7 Analytical bounds on the ASE of (i) COE configuration considering that the interferers are located at the worst and best distances in each of the two adjacent small-cells and
co-channel macro cells and (ii) MoNet configuration as a function of the radius of the macro-cell
Figure 8.8 Summary of energy analysis per user as a function of small-cell radius. (a) Energy consumption; (b) spectral and energy gains
Figure 8.9 Summary of carbon footprint of HetNets. (a) Uplink
emissions for several networks; (b) Daily
emissions profile corresponding to various traffic loads
Figure 8.10 Low carbon economy index (LCEI) for several competitive network configurations
Chapter 9: D2D Communications in Hierarchical HetNets
Figure 9.1 Hierarchical heterogeneous network showing MBS, SBS and D2D communication in the higher tiers
Figure 9.2 D2D user density based on the CDF approximation of
Figure 9.3 Three-tier hierarchical HetNet showing only two-rings for illustrative purpose
Figure 9.4 Sum Rate of MBS, SBSs with/without D2D users
Figure 9.5 Total Sum Rate of HetNet and hierarchical HetNet
Figure 9.6 Interference Geometry for two user densities
Figure 9.7 Average user transmission power comparison of our proposed deployment against full small-cell deployment
Figure 9.8 Transmission power saving of our proposed deployment against full small-cell deployment
Figure 9.9 Average user transmission power comparison of our proposed deployment against full small-cell deployment versus user density
Figure 9.10 Backhaul power consumption comparison of the network with D2D communication against full small-cell deployment
Figure 9.11 Backhaul energy-efficiency comparison of D2D communication against full small-cell deployment for a fixed macro-cell radius
m
Figure 9.12 Tier 2 uplink sum transmission power comparison of D2D communication against full small-cell deployment
Figure 9.13 Downlink power consumption comparison of D2D communication against full small-cell deployment
Chapter 10: Emerging Device-Centric Communications
Figure 10.1 Illustration of conventional D2D, multi-homing D2D and Ds2D communication approaches
Figure 10.1 Achieved average energy efficiency versus the number of candidate source devices
Figure 10.2 Energy consumption per source device to transfer a 1-Mbit file versus the number of candidate source devices
Figure 10.3 Optimal packet split over two interfaces of two source mobile devices vs. range of data rate levels
Figure 10.4 Latency of transferring the requested file to the sink mobile device over two radio interfaces of two source mobile devices by exploiting the optimal packet split
Figure 10.5 Relative gain in file transfer latency (FTL) over Ds2D communication with optimal packet split and random packet split in comparison with direct D2D communication
Figure 10.6 Power consumption (Wh) of source devices versus range of achieved data rate
Figure 10.7 Monthly electricity cost for an average download of a file with a size of 80 MB over Ds2D communications with optimal and random packet split schemes and traditional D2D communication for the range of achieved data rate levels
Figure 10.8 Average improvement in battery life of source devices over Ds2D communications with optimal and random packet split and traditional D2D communications for a range of data rate levels
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Green Network Fundamentals
Table 1.1 Summary of different traffic models [27]
Table 1.2 Summary of different power models proposed in the literature [27]
Table 1.3 Power consumption profile for a femto-cell BS [27]
Table 1.4 MT power consumption for different technologies [27]
Table 1.5 MT power consumption for different data rates of audio streaming and downloading a 200-MB file using WiFi [27]
Table 1.6 Summary of different energy efficiency and consumption definitions proposed in the literature [27]
Chapter 2: Green Network Solutions
Table 2.1 Summary of green solutions and analytical models at low and/or bursty call traffic loads [27]
Table 2.2 Summary of green solutions and analytical models at high and/or continuous call traffic loads [27]
Chapter 3: Green Multi-homing Approach
Table 3.1 Interference parameters [127]
Chapter 4: Multi-homing for a Green Downlink
Table 4.1 Simulation parameters [127]
Chapter 5: Multi-homing for a Green Uplink
Table 5.1 Simulation parameters [54]
Chapter 7: Dynamic Planning in Green Networks
Table 7.1 System parameters [196]
Table 7.2 System parameters [12]
Table 7.3 BS working mode [12]
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